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廢話不多說，讓
心理学卷·其之壹·定意之史
| 心理學卷·其之壹 | ||
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作為一個專職研究腦子、精神進程、可視化舉動、人與動物的成長與成熟、以及社會互動的學科，心理學在歷史裡曾經是哲學學科的一部分。歷史上有數個哲學家都對心理研究提出了
其餘流派介紹：
…… |
咱簡簡單單總個
心理学卷·其之贰·測查之方
| 心理學卷·其之貳 |
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「有何妙法可助心理學測查研究？」
「如果研究不同種族群體對調查的反應是否不同，研究員可以選擇 10 位高加索人、10 位亞洲人、10 位非洲裔美國人……」
研究人員必須嘗試隔離所持有的變量或者「控制混雜變量」。
有時研究相關性（而非操縱研究）是最好的研究方法，因為有些數據無法在實驗中操縱，比如
人類相關實驗的準則：
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心理学卷·其之贰·測查之方·補卷·統計之法
| 心理學卷·其之貳·補卷 |
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心理学卷·其之叁·行為之基
神經元（ ）是構成中樞神經系統（ ）的單個神經細胞。- 每個神經元都由離散的部分組成。
神 經 元 玉 照.jpg
突觸.jpg ：
神經遞質在神經元滴突觸的細胞之間傳播。
電流不會跨越突觸，神經遞質會。
來自一個神經元的神經遞質會落在另一個神經元的樹突上，並在受體的位置與受體相配。
如果達到
（Boolean型變量啊嗯）
有些神經元是
血、情緒、睡眠、疼痛、敏感性和喚醒相關。
！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！
傳入/感覺神經元將信息從我們的感官傳送到脊髓。
Interneuron, found in the spinal cord, relays signals between (afferent) sensory neurons, and (efferent) motor neurons; involved in the process of sensory-motor integration.
在脊髓中發現的中間神經元在（傳入）感覺神經元和（傳出）運動神經元之間傳遞信號； 參與感覺-運動整合的過程。
Efferent Neurons are conducting cells that carry information from the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) to muscles and organs throughout the body.
傳出神經元是傳導細胞，將信息從中樞神經系統（大腦和脊髓）傳送到全身的肌肉和器官。
A subset of movements are controlled by direct transmission from afferent to efferent cells at the level of the spinal cord.
運動的一個子集（即部分運動）是由脊髓水平的傳入細胞直接傳遞到傳出細胞來控制的。
Reflexes: Quick and involuntary responses to environmental stimuli.
反射：對環境刺激非自願的快速反應。
「Nervous System」
The CNS (Central Nervous System) is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
CNS（中樞神經系統）由大腦和脊髓組成。
The PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) consists of all the other nerves in your body other than those in the brain and spinal cord.
PNS（外周神經系統）由您身體中除大腦和脊髓中的所有其他神經組成。
↓The PNS（的Motor Neurons） is divided into two categories: the somatic and the autonomic. （PNS還有Sensory Neurons，效果如其名。）
↓PNS（的運動神經元）分為軀體和自主兩大類。 （PNS還有感覺神經元，效果如其名。）
The somatic nervous system controls our voluntary muscle movements. The motor cortex of the brain sends impulses to the somatic nervous system, which controls the muscles that allow us to move.
軀體神經系統控制著我們的隨意肌肉運動。大腦的運動皮層向軀體神經系統發送脈衝，軀體神經系統控制著讓我們移動的肌肉。
The autonomic nervous system is responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.
自主神經系統負責控制非有意識指導的身體功能，例如呼吸、心跳和消化過程。
(automatic)The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes our body to respond the stress. It is involuntary.
（自動）交感神經系統調動我們的身體應對壓力。這是非自願的。
This part of our nervous system carries messages to organs, glands, and muscles. The sympathetic nervous system controls heart rate, blood pressures, respiration, and slows non-vital functions such as digestion and reproductive organs.
我們神經系統的這一部分將信息傳送到器官、腺體和肌肉。交感神經系統控制心率、血壓、呼吸，並減緩消化和生殖器官等非重要功能。
Also called the Fight or Flight System.
也稱為戰鬥或飛行系統。
The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for slowing down our body after a stress response.
副交感神經系統負責在壓力反應後減緩我們的身體。
The parasympathetic nervous system puts on the brakes to slow down the body’s autonomic nervous system.
副交感神經系統會剎車以減慢身體的自主神經系統。
Often referred to as the Rest and Digest System.
通常被稱為休息和消化系統。
Ways we can study the brain: Accidents, Lesions, Electroencephalogram, Computerized Axial Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Positron Emissions Tomography, Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
我們可以研究(CNS的)大腦的方式：事故、病變、腦電圖、計算機軸向斷層掃描、磁共振成像、正電子發射斷層掃描、功能磁共振成像。
Accidents give clues about brain function.
事故提供了有關大腦功能的線索。
Famous case (1848) of a railroad worker, Phineas Gage who was hit by a piece of rebar in the front of his head. Having sustained damaged to his frontal lobe, and having become highly emotional and impulsive after.
鐵路工人菲尼亞斯·蓋奇（Phineas Gage）的著名案例（1848 年），他的頭部被一根鋼筋擊中。額葉持續受損，之後變得高度情緒化和衝動。
Doctors concluded that the frontal lobe was somehow regulating emotion.
醫生得出結論，額葉以某種方式調節情緒。
Lesion is the removal or destruction of the brain.
病變（個錘子）是大腦的切除或破壞。
A famous example is doctors who lesioned mentally ill patients who had no other treatment options. Lesions give clues about function.
一個著名的例子是醫生對沒有其他治療選擇的精神病患者進行傷害。「損傷」提供有關功能的線索。
Researchers discovered that lesioning a part of the frontal lobe would make the patients calm and relieve some serious mental conditions.
研究人員發現，損傷額葉的一部分可以讓患者平靜下來，緩解一些嚴重的精神狀況。
Electroencephalogram/EEG detects current given off by the electrochemical reactions going on in the brain.
腦電圖/EEG 檢測大腦中發生的電化學反應釋放的電流。
Neurons use an electrochemical process to send signals.
神經元使用電化學過程來發送信號。
Researchers can examine what type of waves the brain produces during different stages of consciousness and use this information to generalize about brain function.
研究人員可以檢查大腦在不同意識階段產生的波類型，並使用這些信息來概括大腦功能。
Widely used in sleep research.
廣泛用於睡眠研究。
腦電圖示意圖.jpg
Computerized Axial Tomography/CAT/CT scan is a sophisticated X-ray.
計算機軸向斷層掃描/CAT/CT 掃描是一種複雜的 X 射線。
A CAT scan uses X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine all the pictures into a detailed three-dimensional picture of the brain’s structure.
CAT 掃描使用圍繞大腦旋轉的 X 射線相機，並將所有圖片組合成大腦結構的詳細 3D 圖片。
The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is similar to a CAT scan.
磁共振成像 (MRI) 類似於 CAT 掃描。
MRI determines the structure; it gives a more detailed image than CAT.
MRI確定結構；它提供了比 CAT 更詳細的圖像。
An MRI uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material.
MRI 使用磁場來測量大腦物質的密度和位置。
Does not expose patients to X-rays like a CAT scan.
不像 CAT 掃描那樣讓患者暴露在 X 射線下。
磁共振成像示意圖.jpg
A Positron Emissions Tomography (PET) scan lets researchers see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks. It will determine brain function.
正電子發射斷層掃描 (PET) 掃描讓研究人員可以看到在某些任務中大腦的哪些區域最活躍。它將決定大腦功能。
In PET scans of the brain, a radioactive atom is applied to glucose.
在大腦的 PET 掃描中，將放射性原子應用於葡萄糖/血糖。
If one area of the brain is using more glucose during some activity, (e.g., problem solving, listening, reading, eye movement, etc.), it is a good indication that that area is associated with that mental state or that behavior.
如果大腦的某個區域在某些活動（例如，解決問題、聆聽、閱讀、眼球運動等）期間使用更多的葡萄糖，則很好地表明該區域與該精神狀態或該行為相關。
正電子成像術示意圖.jpg
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) combines elements of MRI and PET scans.
功能性磁共振成像 (fMRI) 結合了 MRI 和 PET 掃描的元素。
An fMRI scan can show details of brain structure with information about blood flow to the brain, function.
功能磁共振成像掃描可以顯示大腦結構的詳細信息，以及有關流向大腦的血流、功能的信息。
Best of both words approach – you can measure structure and function.
最好的兩個詞以闡釋 - fMRI可以衡量（大腦的）結構和功能。
大腦術語.jpg
The hindbrain consists of structures in the top part of the spinal cord.
後腦由脊髓頂部的結構組成。
The hindbrain controls basic biological functions that keep us alive (respiration, heart rate, blood pressure).
後腦控制著維持我們生命的基本生物學功能（呼吸、心率、血壓）。
Important structures within the hindbrain are the Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum.
後腦內的重要結構是髓質、腦橋和小腦。
The Medulla, also known as the Medulla Oblongata, located above the spinal cord, is involved in control of blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing.
延髓，也稱為延髓，位於脊髓上方，參與控制血壓、心率和呼吸。
Pons, located just above the medulla and toward the front, connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain. It is also involved in the control of facial expressions.
腦橋位於髓質上方並朝向前方，將後腦與中腦和前腦連接起來。它還參與面部表情的控制。
The cerebellum (located on the bottom rear) coordinates some habitual muscle movements such as tracking a target with our eyes.
小腦（位於後下方）協調一些習慣性的肌肉運動，例如用我們的眼睛跟蹤目標。
Cerebellum means little brain, named this probably because it looks like a miniature brain.
之所以命名為小腦，可能是因為它看起來像一個微型大腦。
Areas in the forebrain that make up the limbic system:
構成邊緣系統的前腦區域：
The thalamus, located on top of the brain stem, is responsible for receiving sensory signals coming from the spinal ford and sending them to the right areas of the forebrain.
丘腦，位於腦幹頂部，負責接收來自脊髓淺灘的感覺信號並將它們發送到前腦的正確區域。
Kind of like an air traffic control person, who directs where the incoming planes should land.
有點像空中交通管制人員，負責指示來襲飛機的降落地點。
The hypothalamus, a small structure below the thalamus, controls body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, and biological rhythms (wake/sleep patterns).
下丘腦是丘腦下方的一個小結構，它控制體溫、性喚起、飢餓、口渴和生物節律（喚醒/睡眠模式）。
The hippocampus, looks like two arms surrounding the thalamus, is vital to our memory.
海馬體看起來就像環繞丘腦的兩條手臂，對我們的記憶至關重要。
Memories are processed through the hippocampus and then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage.
記憶通過海馬體進行處理，然後發送到大腦皮層的其他位置進行永久存儲。
Research shows that memories or information must pass through this area first in order to be encoded.
研究表明，記憶或信息必須首先通過該區域才能被編碼。
Individuals with brain damage of the hippocampus are unable to retain new information. If the hippocampus is damaged, old information may also be lost.
海馬體腦損傷的個體無法保留新信息。如果海馬體受損，舊信息也可能丟失。
The amygdala is very important to certain emotions like fear and aggression.
杏仁核（挨著海馬體的那倆）對於恐懼和攻擊性等某些情緒非常重要。
The thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus (all the brain parts we just covered) are grouped together and are called the limbic system.
丘腦、下丘腦、杏仁核和海馬體（我們剛剛介紹的所有大腦部分）組合在一起，稱為邊緣系統。
Cerebral cortex: Gray, wrinkled stuff that is densely packed with neurons.
大腦皮層：灰色的、有皺紋的東西，裡面有密集的神經元。
The surface of the cerebral cortex is wrinkled. The big wrinkles are called Fissures.
大腦皮層表面起皺。大皺紋被稱為裂縫。
Fissures increase the availability of surface area. The more wrinkles, the more surface area contained within the skull.
裂縫增加了表面積的可用性。皺紋越多，顱骨內的表面積就越大。
Cerebral cortex: Gray, wrinkled stuff that is densely packed with neurons.
大腦皮層：灰色的、有皺紋的東西，裡面有密集的神經元。
The surface of the cerebral cortex is wrinkled. The big wrinkles are called Fissures.
大腦皮層表面起皺。大皺紋被稱為裂縫。
Fissures increase the availability of surface area. The more wrinkles, the more surface area contained within the skull.
裂縫增加了表面積的可用性。皺紋越多，顱骨內的表面積就越大。
The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres: left and right.
大腦皮層分為左右兩個半球。
The left hemisphere gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the right half of the body.
左半球接收感覺信息並控制右半身的運動功能。
The right hemisphere gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the left half of the body.
右半球接收感覺信息並控制左半身的運動功能。
This is called contralateral control.
這稱為對側控制。
Hemispheric specialization refers to the different and specific functions performed by the two hemispheres of the brain.
半球專業化是指大腦的兩個半球執行的不同且特定的功能。
It is possible that the left hemisphere may be more active during logic and sequential tasks and the right during spatial and creative.
左半球在邏輯和順序任務期間可能更活躍，而在空間和創造性任務期間，右半球可能更活躍。
But this is still under investigation.
但這仍在調查中。
Split brain patients, patients whose corpus callosum has been cut to treat epilepsy, cannot orally report information only presented to the right hemisphere, since the spoken language centers of the brain are usually located in the left hemisphere.
腦裂患者，即切除胼胝體以治療癲癇的患者，不能口頭報告僅呈現給右半球的信息，因為大腦的口語中心通常位於左半球。
半球（Hemisphere）
胼(pian2)胝(zhi1)體（Corpus Callosum）
（Areas of the Cerebral Cortex）大腦皮層區域：
The frontal lobe is a large area of the cerebral cortex located at the top front part of the brain.
額葉是大腦皮層的一大塊區域，位於大腦前部的頂部。
Within the front lobe, and the very front, is the prefrontal cortex, and is believed to be essential in directing thought processes.
在前葉（額葉）內，也就是最前面，是前額葉皮層，被認為對指導思維過程至關重要。
The prefrontal cortex is said to act as the brain's central executive.
據傳前額葉皮層充當大腦的中央執行器。
Researchers believe this part of the brain is responsible for abstract thought and emotional control.
研究人員認為，大腦的這一部分負責抽象思維和情緒控制。
Broca's area is in the frontal lobe.
布羅卡區位於額葉。
It is responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech.
它負責控制與產生表達有關的肌肉。
Damage to Broca's area might leave one unable to make the muscle movements needed for speech.
布羅卡區受損可能會導致無法進行講話所需的肌肉運動。
Wernicke's area is located in the temporal lobe.
韋尼克區位於顳葉。
Wernicke’s area interprets both written and spoken speech.
韋尼克區解釋書面和口語。
Damage to this area affects our ability to understand language and result in our speech lacking syntax and grammatical structure.
對該區域的損害會影響我們理解語言的能力，並導致我們的言語缺乏句法和語法結構。
The parietal lobe is located behind the frontal lobe and at the top of the brain.
頂葉位於額葉後面和大腦的頂部。
The parietal lobe contains the sensory cortex also known as the somato-sensory cortex.
頂葉包含感覺皮層，也稱為體感皮層。
The sensory cortex is a thin vertical strip that receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of our body.
感覺皮層是一個薄的垂直條帶，可以接收來自我們身體其他部位的觸覺。
The motor cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements.
運動皮層是參與計畫、控制和執行隨意運動的大腦皮層區域。
The sensory cortex, like the motor cortex, is organized top down: The top of the sensory cortex receives sensations from the bottom of the body, progressing down the cortex to the bottom, which processes signals from our face and head.
感覺皮層，就像運動皮層一樣，是自上而下組織的：感覺皮層的頂部接收來自身體底部的感覺，沿著皮層向下進展到底部，它處理來自我們面部和頭部的信號。
The temporal lobe processes sound sensed by our ears.
顳葉處理我們耳朵感知的聲音。
Sound waves are processed by the ears, turned into neural impulses, and interpreted in our auditory cortices.
聲波由耳朵處理，轉化為神經衝動，並在我們的聽覺皮層中進行解釋。
occipital lobe is at the very back of the brain, farthest from eyes.
枕葉位於大腦的後部，離眼睛最遠。
The major function of the occipital lobe is to interpret information from our eyes in our visual cortex.
枕葉的主要功能是在我們的視覺皮層中解釋來自我們眼睛的信息。
Impulses from the retinas in our eyes are sent to the visual cortex to be processed.
來自我們眼睛視網膜的脈衝被發送到視覺皮層進行處理。
The endocrine system. controlled by the hypothalamus, is a set of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies.
內分泌系統。由下丘腦控制，是一組分泌激素的腺體，這些激素影響我們體內許多不同的生物過程。
The hypothalamus produces separate hormones that stimulate or inhibit hormone production in the pituitary gland, known as the master gland.
下丘腦產生單獨的激素，刺激或抑制垂體（稱為主腺）中的激素產生。
The adrenal glands produce adrenaline (epinephrine) which signals the flight or fight response.
腎上腺產生腎上腺素（腎上腺素），它發出飛行或戰鬥反應的信號。
This causes the autonomic nervous system to increase heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It prepares our body for action.
這會導致自主神經系統增加心率、呼吸和血壓。它讓我們的身體為行動做好準備。
Stressful situations cause the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone, which stimulates the adrenal gland.
壓力情況會導致垂體釋放促腎上腺皮質激素，從而刺激腎上腺。
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). These initiate the flight or fight response.
腎上腺髓質分泌腎上腺素和去甲腎上腺素。這些啟動飛行或戰鬥響應。
Women's ovaries and men's testes produce sex hormones. Women produce estrogen in their ovaries, men produce testosterone in their testes.
女性的卵巢和男性的睪丸會產生性激素。女性在卵巢中產生雌激素，男性在睪丸中產生睪酮。
The different levels of these hormones explain some differences in behavior like aggression and sexual behavior.
這些激素的不同水平解釋了攻擊和性行為等行為的一些差異。
Many traits, like body shape, introversion, and height result from the combination of nature (genetic code) and nurture (the environment).
許多特徵，如體型、內向和身高，都是先天（遺傳密碼）和後天（環境）結合的結果。
Every human cell contains 46 chromosomes in a 23 pair.
每個人類細胞都包含 23 對中的 46 條染色體。
The genetic material that makes up chromosomes is called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
構成染色體的遺傳物質稱為脫氧核糖核酸 (DNA)。
Segments of DNA, called genes, control the production of specific proteins that control some human traits.
DNA片段，稱為基因，控制著控制某些人類特徵的特定蛋白質的產生。
A genotype comprises all of the possible combinations of genes; a phenotype is the observable trait.
基因型包括所有可能的基因組合；表型是可觀察到的特徵。
Genes can either be dominant or recessive.
基因可以是顯性的或隱性的。
A dominant trait is more likely to be expressed than a recessive trait.
顯性性狀比隱性性狀更容易表達。
Expression of Dominant & Recessive Alleles
顯性和隱性等位基因的表達：
Alleles Present Allele Expressed
存在基因 基因表達
Dominant, Dominant:Dominant
顯性的，顯性的:顯性的
Dominant, Recessive:Recessive
顯性的，隱性的：隱性的
Recessive, Recessive:Recessive
隱性的，隱性的：隱性的
Identical twins or monozygotic twins develop from one fertilized egg called a zygote.
同卵雙胞胎或同卵雙胞胎從一個稱為合子的受精卵發育而來。
Research by Thomas Bouchard where he studied monozygotic twins given up at birth showed that IQ does depend slightly on the environment in which you are raised.
Thomas Bouchard 研究了在出生時放棄的單卵雙胞胎的研究表明，智商確實略微取決於您的成長環境。
But IQ of twins raised apart are still highly correlated, so genetics still play a large role in how smart you are.
但是分開長大的雙胞胎的智商仍然高度相關，因此遺傳因素仍然對你的聰明程度起著重要作用。
Furthermore, twins raised in separate families share very similar physical qualities, which may cause others to treat them in similar way, creating the same effective psychological environment for both twins.
此外，在不同家庭長大的雙胞胎具有非常相似的身體素質，這可能會導致其他人以相似的方式對待他們，從而為雙胞胎創造相同的有效心理環境。
Sometimes chromosomes do not combine normally.
有時染色體不能正常結合。
Turner's syndrome is where the infant has only a single X chromosome.
特納症候群是指嬰兒只有一條 X 染色體。
Babies and children with Turner;s generally have traits such as shortness, webbed necks, and differences in physical sexual development.
患有特納氏症的嬰兒和兒童通常具有短小、蹼頸和身體性發育差異等特徵。
Klinefelter's syndrome is when males have an extra X, resulting in XXY.
克蘭費爾特綜合症是男性有一個額外的 X，導致 XXY。
Sexual development is different and personality like extreme introversion (shyness, lack of social interaction) occurs.
性發展是不同的，並且會出現極端內向（害羞，缺乏社交互動）等個性。
Down Syndrome: Babies born with down syndrome are born with an extra chromosome on the twenty-first pair.
唐氏綜合症：出生時患有唐氏綜合症的嬰兒出生時在第 21 對染色體上有一條額外的染色體。
Results in rounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, and intellectual difficulties.
導致臉部圓潤，手指和腳趾較短，眼睛分開很遠，智力困難。
心理学卷·其之肆·感知之會
人有
- 神經生物學中的
刺激（ ）概念為光與低溫高溫等傳遞於體內的能量。 - 其可激發
神經衝動（ ），此舉動被稱為傳導（ ）。
感覺
視覺介紹
可見光是電磁波譜的非常少的一部分
事物之所以能被看到有顏色，是因為光線反射的波長入了眼所呈現出來的。
- 比如硃砂反射硃砂紅相關的波長，其他的波長一來全吸收了。
- 圍棋中的黑棋吸收所有的波長，白棋反射所有的波長。
"光透過
"光穿過
"
"光之能量轉換為
眼角膜（ ）：聚焦並傳送光線至瞳孔。瞳孔（ ）：虹膜（ ）中心的洞，作用為允許光線衝向視網膜。視網膜（ ）：將光轉換成神經能量，能量再由視杆細胞和視錐細胞開送。視網膜中央凹（ ）：視網膜中央的凹陷，也是視網膜中視覺（辨色力、分辨力）最敏銳的區域。- 視野的中心在此集中，視錐在此尤其專注。
視杆（ ）和視錐（ ）是視網膜內的受體。- 視杆感受（弱光）光刺激，視錐感受強光和顏色。
- 視杆和誰追受到光線刺激，就將（被轉換的神經）能量傳到第二層視覺細胞：雙極細胞。
雙極細胞（ ）將能量送到睫狀神經節細胞。- 睫狀
槓鈴神經節細胞（ ）：構成視神經（ ），將能量送至大腦里的丘腦（ ）。
！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！
眼睛對大腦：
The signal, travelling along the optic nerve, is transmitted to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus.
信號沿著視神經傳遞到外側膝狀核。
Lateral geniculate nucleus is a region of the thalamus.
外側膝狀核是丘腦的一個區域。
The lateral geniculate nucleus transmits the signal to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
外側膝狀核將信號傳遞到枕葉的視覺皮層。
Theories of Colour Vision
「色彩視覺理論」
Trichromatic Theory: We have three types of cones in our retina, cones that detect blue, red, and green, and that different activation combinations of the cones produces all the colours we see.
三色理論:我們的視網膜有三種類型的視錐細胞，這些視錐細胞能檢測到藍色、紅色和綠色，而這些視錐細胞的不同激活組合能產生我們看到的所有顏色。
Trichromatic theory does not explain after images.
三色理論不能解釋後圖像。
Opponent Process Theory: Sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs: red/green, yellow/blue, black/white.
拮抗理論:視網膜上的感覺感受器是成對排列的:紅/綠、黃/藍、黑/白。
If one sensor is stimulated, its pair is inhibited from firing.
如果一個傳感器受到刺激，其對就會被抑制。
If you stare at a red colour for awhile, you fatigue your sensors for red.
如果你盯著紅色看一段時間，你的傳感器就會對紅色感到疲勞。
Opponent process theory explains after images.
拮抗理論解釋後圖像。
Opponent processing theory also explains color blindness; if color sensors come in pairs, and an individual is missing one pair (e.g., red/green) then he or she should have difficulty seeing those colors.
拮抗理論也解釋了色盲;如果顏色傳感器是成對的，而一個人缺少了一對(例如紅/綠)，那麼他或她應該很難看到這些顏色。
Sensation: HEARING
感覺:聽力
Auditory sense uses energy in the form of sound waves instead of electromagnetic waves.
聽覺利用聲波而不是電磁波形式的能量。
Sound waves are created by vibrations which travel through the air and collected by our ears.
聲波是由振動產生的，振動通過空氣傳播並被我們的耳朵收集。
The process of hearing:
聆聽的過程:
Sound waves enter the outer ear.
聲波進入外耳。
Sound waves cause the ear drum to vibrate.
聲波引起耳膜振動。
Three tiny bones, stapes, incus, and malleus, in the middle ear amplify the vibrations and send them to the inner ear.
中耳有三個小骨頭，鐙骨、砧骨和錘骨，它們會放大振動，並將振動發送到內耳。
Vibrations hit the cochlea which is lined with hair cells; hair cells moves and trigger the release of neurotransmitters.
振動擊中布滿毛細胞的耳蝸;毛細胞移動並觸發神經遞質的釋放。
Electrical signals sent by the auditory nerve travel to the brain.
聽覺神經發出的電信號傳輸到大腦。
Theories of Hearing
聽力的理論
Place Theory: The hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea.
位置理論:耳蝸中的毛細胞根據它們在耳蝸中的位置對不同頻率的聲音作出反應。
We sense pitch because the hair cells move in different places in the cochlea.
我們能感覺到音高是因為毛細胞在耳蝸的不同位置移動。
Research demonstrates that place theory accurately describes how hair cells sense the upper range of pitches but not in the lower tones.
研究表明，位置理論準確地描述了毛細胞是如何感知高音的，不過低音不算。
Frequency Theory: Lower tones are sensed by the rate at which hair cells fire.
頻率理論:低音是通過毛細胞放電的速率來感知的。
We sense lower ranges of pitch because the hair cells fire at different frequencies in the cochlea.
我們能感覺到較低的音高，因為耳蝸中的毛細胞以不同的頻率放電。
Sensation: SKIN
感覺:皮膚
Our skin has a set of nerves that detect temperature and pressure.
我們的皮膚有一組神經來檢測溫度和壓力。
The amount of nerves in one area also varies;
一個區域的神經數量也各不相同;
your lips have many more nerves and can detect slight changes pressure or heat much easier than your lower back.
你的嘴唇有更多的神經，可以比你的下背部更容易察覺到壓力或熱量的微小變化。
Sensation: TASTE
感覺:味道
Certain nerves respond to chemical energy.
某些神經對化學能有反應。
Taste buds are located on the papillae, which are bumps on your tongue.
味蕾位於舌尖，舌尖是舌頭上的腫塊。
Some are also located on the roof of your mouth and cheeks.
有些還位於你的上顎和臉頰上。
Types of tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, savory(umami).
口味的類型:甜的，鹹的，酸的，苦的，鮮的。
Sensation: OLFACTION
感覺:嗅覺
Olfaction relies on chemical receptors.
嗅覺依賴於化學受體。
Odor, scents, smells, make their way up to the olfactory bulb where the smell is processed by olfactory receptor cells.
「氣味」到達嗅球，在那裡氣味被嗅覺感受器細胞處理。
Olfactory receptors connect to parts of the limbic system like the amygdala and hippocampus.
嗅覺感受器連接到邊緣系統的某些部分，比如杏仁核和海馬體。
These parts of the brain are responsible for emotion and memory, respectively.
大腦的這兩個部分分別負責情感和記憶。
Sensation: PAIN
感覺:痛
Gate Control Theory: Explains that some pain messages have a higher priority than others:
門控制理論:解釋了一些疼痛信息比其他信息有更高的優先級:
"When a higher priority message is sent, the 'gate' swings open for it and shuts off lower priority messages."
「當發送高優先級的信息時，『門』為它打開，關閉低優先級的信息。」
There is not an actual gate, it's just an analogy.
這裡沒有真正的門，這只是個類比。
Sensation: ORIENTATION
感覺:取向
Vestibular Sense is responsible for how our body is oriented in space.
前庭感覺負責我們的身體如何在空間中定位。
Three semicircular canals in the inner ear give the brain information about our orientation. These canals are filled with fluid.
內耳的三個半規管向大腦提供我們的方位信息。這些管道充滿了液體。
When that fluid moves, hair cells are activated, which cause nerve cells to fire, which tell our brain about our orientation in space.
當液體移動時，毛細胞被激活，導致神經細胞激活，從而告訴我們的大腦我們在空間中的方向。
Kinesthetic sense gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts.
動覺給我們反饋身體特定部位的位置和方向。
Receptors in our muscles and joints send information to our brain about our limbs.
我們肌肉和關節中的感受器向大腦發送有關四肢的信息。
One's leg "falling asleep" is a disruption of the kinesthetic sense.
一個人的腿「睡著了」是一種運動感覺的中斷。
認知（Perception）
Perception: THRESHOLD
感知：閾值
Absolute Threshold / Just-Noticeable Difference is the smallest amount of a stimulus that we can detect (for any of the senses).
絕對閾值（JND）是我們可以檢測到的最小刺激量（對於任何感官）。
Stimuli below the absolute threshold are said to be subliminal.
低於絕對閾值的刺激被稱為閾下刺激。
Subliminal Messaging are stimuli that lie below our threshold of conscious awareness.
潛意識信息是低於我們有意識意識閾值的刺激。
Weber's law states that the change needed is proportional to the original stimulus.
韋伯定律指出，所需的變化與原始刺激成正比。
Perception: THEORIES
感知：理論
Signal Detection Theory investigates the effects of the distractions and interferences we experience while perceiving the world.
信號檢測理論研究我們在感知世界時所經歷的分心和干擾的影響。
Tries to account for what will be perceived and how we are motivated to detect certain stimuli.
試圖解釋將被感知的內容以及我們如何被激勵去檢測某些刺激。
Factors that influence our decisions are called response criteria.
影響我們決策的因素稱為響應標準。
A False Positive is when we perceive a stimulus that is not there.
假正是當我們感知到不存在的刺激時。（自以為負實為正）
A False Negative is not perceiving something that is actually there.
假負沒有感知到實際存在的東西。（自以為正實為負）
Perception: TOP DOWN PROCESSING
感知：自頂向下處理
Top Down Processing occurs when you use your previously acquired knowledge to fill in gaps in what you perceive.
當您使用先前獲得的知識來填補您所感知的空白時，就會發生自上而下的處理。
A schema or schemata is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.
圖式是有助於組織和解釋信息的認知框架或概念。
Bottom up processing is the opposite of top down processing. Analysis of the stimulus begins with sense receptors and works up to the level of the brain and mind.
自下而上處理與自上而下處理相反。對刺激的分析從感覺感受器開始，一直到大腦和心智的水平。
The letter 『A』 is really a black blotch broken down into features (/ - \) by the brain that we perceive as an 『A』.
字母「A」實際上是一個黑色斑點，被我們認為是「A」的大腦分解成特徵（/ - \）。
Bottom up processing occurs when we encounter something new or unfamiliar. Like when analysing a new language.
當我們遇到新的或不熟悉的東西時，就會發生自下而上的處理。就像在分析一種新語言時一樣。
Feature Analysis: We analysis the lines, curves, motion, and our brain builds a picture from the bottom up.
特徵分析：我們分析線條、曲線、運動，我們的大腦自下而上構建圖像。
Top Down Processing is quicker, but more prone to errors.
自上而下的處理速度更快，但更容易出錯。
Bottom up Processing is more accurate, but takes a longer amount of time.
自下而上處理更準確，但需要更長的時間。
Perception: GESTALT PRINCIPLES: The observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects.
感知：格式塔原則：人類自然地將物體感知為有組織的模式和物體的觀察。
Proximity: Objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in a group.
接近性：靠近的物體更有可能被認為屬於一個群體。
Similarity: Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging in a group.
相似性：外觀相似的物體更有可能被認為屬於一個群體。
Continuity: Objects that form a continuous form are likely to be perceived as a continuous thing.
連續性：形成連續形式的物體很可能被認為是連續的事物。
Closure: Objects that make up a recognizable image are more likely to be perceived as in the same group.
封閉性：構成可識別圖像的對象更有可能被視為在同一組中。
Connectedness: Objects that are connected to each other using colors, lines, frames, or other shapes are perceived as a single unit when compared with other elements that are not linked in the same manner.
連通性：與其他未以相同方式連結的元素相比，使用顏色、線條、框架或其他形狀相互連接的對象被視為一個單元。
Perception: OTHER PRINCIPLES
感知：其他原則
Symmetry: Objects that are symmetrical to each other tend to be perceived as a unified group.
對稱性：彼此對稱的物體往往被視為一個統一的群體。
Size Constancy: Objects closer to our eyes will produce bigger images on our retinas, but we take this into account and know the object does not shrink or grow larger as in comes closer or goes farther away.
尺寸恆定性：靠近我們眼睛的物體會在我們的視網膜上產生更大的圖像，但我們考慮到這一點，並且知道物體不會隨著靠近或遠離而縮小或變大。
Shape Constancy: Objects viewed from different angles have different shapes, but we do not think objects change shape as we look at them differently.
形狀恆常性：從不同角度觀看的物體具有不同的形狀，但我們認為物體不會因為我們以不同的方式看待它們而改變形狀。
Brightness Constancy: We perceive objects as being a constant color even as the light reflected off the object changes.
亮度恆定性：即使物體反射的光發生變化，我們也會將物體視為恆定的顏色。
You will mostly likely always perceive a brown set of stairs as brown, even if the brightness varies.
即使亮度變化，您很可能總是將一組棕色樓梯視為棕色。
Perception: PERCEIVED MOTION
感知：感知運動
Stroboscopic Effect: Images in a series of still pictures presented at a certain speed will appear to be moving.
頻閃效應：以一定速度呈現的一系列靜止畫面中的圖像會出現移動。
Phi-phenomenon: A series of lights flashed on and off at a particular rate will appear to be moving light.
飛現象：一連串燈以特定的速度閃爍，看起來像是移動的光。（就是手機會出現的那一個原地移動的圈）
Autokinetic Effect: If a spot light is projected steadily onto the same place on a wall of a dark room and people are asked to stare at it, they will report seeing it move even though it has not.
自動動力學效應：如果聚光燈穩定地投射到黑暗房間牆壁上的同一位置，並要求人們盯著它看，他們會報告說看到它在移動，即使它沒有移動。
It is suggested that, with lack of peripheral information, eye movements which correct movements due to muscle fatigue are wrongly interpreted in the brain as movement of the perceived light.
有人認為，由於缺乏外圍信息，糾正由於肌肉疲勞引起的運動的眼球運動在大腦中被錯誤地解釋為感知光的運動。
Perception: Monocular Cues
感知：單眼線索
Linear Perspective: A type of perspective used by artists in which the relative size, shape, and position of objects are determined by drawn or imagined lines converging at a point on the horizon.
線性透視：藝術家使用的一種透視，其中對象的相對大小、形狀和位置由在地平線上的一點匯聚的繪製或想像的線決定。
Relative Size Cue: The relative size of an object serves as an important monocular cue for depth perception. The size difference can make the larger object appear closer and the smaller object appears farther away.
相對尺寸提示：物體的相對尺寸是深度感知的重要單眼提示。尺寸差異可以使較大的物體看起來更近，而較小的物體看起來更遠。
Interposition Cue: Objects that block the view of other objects must be closer to us.
插入提示：阻擋其他物體視線的物體必須離我們更近。
Texture Gradient: A change in the appearance of the grain or microstructure of a surface. Objects closest in the picture have detail, while things far off fade in appearance.
紋理梯度：表面顆粒或微觀結構外觀的變化。圖片中最近的物體有細節，而遠處的物體外觀會褪色。
Shadowing: implies where the light source is coming from.
陰影：暗示光源來自哪裡。
Perception: Binocular Cues
感知：雙目線索
Binocular Disparity: Binocular disparity refers to the difference in image location of an object seen by the left and right eyes, resulting from the eyes’ horizontal separation.
雙目視差：雙眼視差是指左右眼看到的物體在圖像位置上的差異，是由於眼睛水平分離造成的。
The brain uses binocular disparity to extract depth information from the two-dimensional retinal images.
大腦使用雙眼視差從二維視網膜圖像中提取深度信息。
Each eye sees an object from a slightly different angle, but when the object is close, there will be more disparity between the images from each eye. To demonstrate, hold your thumb way out, opening and shutting both eyes, and then bring your thumb to your nose, and do the same. Notice the relative change in horizontal distance.
每隻眼睛從稍微不同的角度看到一個物體，但是當物體靠近時，每隻眼睛的圖像之間的差異會更大。為了演示，將拇指伸出來，睜開和閉上雙眼，然後將拇指放在鼻子上，然後做同樣的事情。注意水平距離的相對變化。（甘迺迪.jpg）
Our eyes converge as an object gets closer, and our eyes must move toward each other to keep focused on the object.
當一個物體越來越近時，我們的眼睛會聚在一起，我們的眼睛必須彼此靠近以保持專注於物體。
The brain receives feedback from the muscles controlling eye movement and interprets that the more the eyes converge, the closer the object must be.
大腦接收來自控制眼球運動的肌肉的反饋，並解釋眼睛越集中，物體必須越近。
Perception: Depth Cues
感知：深度線索
Eleanor Gibson & the Visual Cliff:
埃莉諾吉布森和視覺懸崖：
Gibson found that an infant old enough to crawl will not crawl across the visual cliff, implying that the child has depth perception.
吉布森發現，一個足以爬行的嬰兒不會爬過視覺懸崖，暗示孩子有深度知覺。
Other experiments demonstrate that depth perception develops when we are about three months old.
其他實驗表明，當我們大約三個月大時，深度感知就會發展。
Perceptual rules once thought to be innate (determined by genes) are actually learned.
曾經被認為是天生的（由基因決定）的感知規則實際上是學習的。
Cultures that do not use monocular depth cues (such as linear perspective) in their art, do not see depth in pictures using these cues.
在他們的藝術中不使用單眼深度線索（例如線性透視）的文化，在使用這些線索的圖片中看不到深度。
Cross-cultural research demonstrates that some basic perceptual sets (a predisposition to perceive something in a certain way) are learned from our culture and are not inborn.
跨文化研究表明，一些基本的感知集合（以某種方式感知事物的傾向）是從我們的文化中習得的，而不是與生俱來的。
待補充
心理学卷·其之伍·意識之態
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二元論者認為人類（和宇宙）由思想和物質（彼此獨立）組成。
Matter is everything that has substance; thought is a non-material aspect that arises from matter.
「物質是一切有實質的東西；思想是由物質產生的非物質方面。」
Monists believe that everything is the same substance, and thought and matter are one in the same thing.
一元論者認為，一切都是同一個實體，思想和物質是同一個事物。
Consciousness is our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment.
意識是我們對自己和環境的意識水平。
Conscious level: Information about you and your environment that you are currently aware of.
意識層面：您當前了解的有關您和您的環境的信息。
Nonconscious level: Bodily processes, like heart rate and breathing, that you are not usually aware of.
無意識層面：您通常不知道的身體過程，例如心率和呼吸。
Preconscious level: Information about you or your environment that you are not currently thinking about but you could be; What's your favorite color?
前意識層面：關於您或您的環境的信息，您當前沒有想到但您可能會想到；你最喜歡的顏色是什麼？
Subconscious level: Information that you are not consciously aware of, but researchers know exists due to our behavior – Mere Exposure Effect as an example.
潛意識層面：您沒有意識到的信息，但研究人員知道由於我們的行為而存在 - 僅以曝光效應為例。
Unconscious level: Psychoanalytic theory suggests some events and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious minds and are repressed into the unconscious mind (examples, sexual fantasies, hurtful memories, embarrassment, etc.).
無意識層面：精神分析理論表明，一些事件和感覺是我們有意識的頭腦無法接受的，並被壓抑到無意識的頭腦中（例如，性幻想、傷害性記憶、尷尬等）。
Circadian Rhythm: During a 24-hour day, our metabolic processes follow a certain pattern.
晝夜節律：在 24 小時的一天中，我們的新陳代謝過程遵循一定的模式。
One way we can study the circadian rhythm is by using an electroencephalograph(EEG).
我們可以研究晝夜節律的一種方法是使用腦電圖儀 (EEG)。
An EEG measures and records the electrical activity of your brain.
腦電圖測量和記錄大腦電活動。
（Non-rapid eye movement(NREM): 非快速眼動）
睡眠階段（Sleep Stages）（及其釋義）介紹：
Stage 1: Drowsiness; Small wave frequency (4-7hz). On EEG and NREM sleep.
第一階段：嗜睡； 小波頻率（4-7Hz）。 關於 EEG 和 NREM 睡眠。
Stage 2: Asleep; EEG dominated by thetawaves, but hz increases, high energy burst on EEG (sleep spindles) and NREM sleep.
第 2 階段：睡著了； EEG 以 θ波頻率 為主，但 hz 增加，EEG（睡眠紡錘波）和 NREM 睡眠的高能量爆發。
Stage 3: Delta waves (1-4hz); Less sleep sprindles, NREM sleep.
第三階段：三角波（1-4hz）；睡眠少，非快速眼動睡眠。
Stage 4: Deepest sleep of NREM, delta waves, hard to wake, growth harmones released here, slow wave sleep (SWS).
第 4 階段：NREM 的最深睡眠，三角波，難以醒來，此處釋放的生長諧波，慢波睡眠 (SWS)。
REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep): Fast desynchronised EEG, body effectively paralysed, dreaming more likely to occur.
REM 睡眠（矛盾睡眠）：快速不同步的腦電圖，身體有效癱瘓，更有可能發生夢想。
Move back to Stage 2: Move back to REM, repeat pattern, approximately every 90 minutes, ⅘ (80%) a night.
回到第 2 階段：回到 REM，重複模式，大約每 90 分鐘一次，⅘ (80%) 每晚。
Sleep Disorders
睡眠障礙
Insomnia: is the most common sleep disorder where an individual has persistent problems getting to sleep or staying asleep.
失眠症：是最常見的睡眠障礙，個人在入睡或保持睡眠方面存在持續問題。
Treatment: Reduce intake of caffeine and other stimulants, exercise, maintain a consist sleep pattern, and sleeping aids
治療：減少咖啡因和其他興奮劑的攝入量、鍛鍊、保持穩定的睡眠模式和助眠劑
Narcolepsy: Individuals suffer from periods of intense sleepiness and may fall asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times.
嗜睡症：個體患有強烈嗜睡的時期，並且可能在不可預測和不適當的時間入睡。
Treatment: Medication and changing sleep patterns to include naps at certain times of the day.
治療：藥物治療和改變睡眠模式，包括在一天中的某些時間小睡。
Sleep Apnea: Apnea causes a person to stop breathing for short periods of time during the night; the person then wakes up, gasping for air, and then goes back to sleep, possibly without even noticing.
睡眠呼吸暫停：呼吸暫停會導致人在夜間短時間停止呼吸；然後這個人醒來，大口喘氣，然後又睡著了，可能甚至沒有注意到。
The person may not be able to have sustained deep sleep (delta wave/REM) and this can interfere with memory consolidation.
人可能無法持續深度睡眠（delta波/REM），這可能會干擾記憶鞏固。
Sleep Apnea can be treated with a respiration machine that provides air for the person as he or she sleeps.
睡眠呼吸暫停可以用呼吸機治療，該呼吸機在人睡覺時為他或她提供空氣。
Night terrors are nightmares where the individual wakes up in a panic.
夜驚是個人在恐慌中醒來的噩夢。
Somnambulism is sleep walking. Occurs more commonly in children and occurs during the first few hours of the night in stage four sleep.
夢遊症就是夢遊（你擱這擱這呢）。更常見於兒童，發生在第四階段睡眠的前幾個小時。
Night terrors and somnambulism usual fade with age.
夜驚和夢遊症通常會隨著年齡的增長而消退。
Dreams are the story-like images we experience during sleep.
夢是我們在睡眠中經歷的類似故事的圖像。
Dreaming probably occurs most often during REM sleep, as evidenced by people reporting dreams most often after being woken by researchers during REM sleep.
夢可能最常發生在 REM 睡眠期間，正如人們在 REM 睡眠期間被研究人員喚醒後最常報告夢境所證明的那樣。
Freudian psychoanalytical theory emphasizes dream interpretation as a method to uncover the repressed information in the unconscious mind.
弗洛伊德的精神分析理論強調夢的解釋是一種揭示潛意識中被壓抑信息的方法。
Freudian method (psychoanalysis) is subjective, hard to test, and psychoanalysis does not have much scientific backing.
弗洛伊德的方法（精神分析）是主觀的，難以檢驗，精神分析沒有太多的科學依據。
Manifest Content is the literal content of our dreams
清單內容是我們夢想的文字內容
If you dream about showing up at school 一絲不掛, the manifest content is your 一絲不掛的狀態.
如果您夢想一絲不掛地出現在學校，那麼明顯的內容就是您的一絲不掛。
Latent Content is the unconscious meaning of the manifest content
潛在內容是顯化內容的無意識意義
Showing up at school 一絲不掛 could mean that the person feels vulnerable or anxious at school.
一絲不掛出現在學校可能意味著該人在學校感到脆弱或焦慮。
Activation-Synthesis Theory: Our cerebral cortex is trying to interpret random electrical activity we have while sleeping; that is why dreams sometimes seem random and fictitious.
激活合成理論：我們的大腦皮層試圖解釋我們在睡覺時的隨機電活動；這就是為什麼夢有時看起來是隨機的和虛構的。
Information Processing Theory & Dreams: Dreaming falls somewhere in-between Freud's psychoanalysis and Activation Synthesis Theory.
信息處理理論與夢：夢介於弗洛伊德的精神分析和激活綜合理論之間。
Information processing theory points out that stress during the day will increase the number and intensity of dreams during the night.
信息處理理論指出，白天的壓力會增加夜間做夢的次數和強度。
Proponents of information processing theorize that perhaps the brain is processing daily stress and information during REM dreams.
信息處理的支持者認為，大腦可能在快速眼動夢境中處理日常壓力和信息。
Posthypnotic Amnesia: When people report forgetting events that occurred while they were hypnotized.
催眠後失憶症：當人們報告在他們被催眠時發生的遺忘事件時。
Posthypnotic Suggestion: A suggestion that a hypnotized person behave in a certain way after he or she is brought out of hypnosis.
催眠後暗示：暗示被催眠的人在被催眠後會以某種方式表現的暗示。
Role Theory states that hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness at all. Role theory suggests that some people are more easily hypnotized than others; this is called hypnotic suggestibility.
角色理論指出，催眠根本不是意識的替代狀態。其表明，有些人比其他人更容易被催眠；這被稱為催眠暗示性。
State Theory suggests that hypnosis meets some parts of the definition for an altered state of consciousness.
狀態理論認為催眠符合意識狀態改變定義的某些部分。
Hypnotists seem to be able to suggest that we become more or less aware of events and our environment.
催眠師似乎能夠暗示我們或多或少地意識到事件和我們的環境。
(Ernest Hilgard's) Dissociation Theory suggests that hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily.
（歐內斯特·希爾加德的）分離理論認為催眠使我們自願分裂我們的意識。
One part or level of our consciousness responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist, while another part or level retains awareness of reality.
我們意識的一部分或層次對催眠師的建議作出反應，而另一部分或層次保留對現實的認識。
When investigating hypnotism and pain control, Hilgard asked hypnotized participants to put their arm in an ice water bath; the hypnotized participants reported feeling no pain, but when Hilgard asked them to lift their index finger if any of them felt pain, most of them lifted their finger.
在研究催眠和疼痛控制時，希爾加德要求被催眠的參與者將他們的手臂放在冰水浴中；被催眠的參與者報告說沒有感到疼痛，但是當希爾加德要求他們如果有任何人感到疼痛時抬起食指時，他們中的大多數人都抬起了手指。
Demonstrated the presence of a 『hidden observer』 or some different level of consciousness.
證明存在「隱藏的觀察者」或某種不同的意識水平。
Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and body.
精神活性藥物是改變大腦和身體化學成分的化學物質。
Drugs are just chemicals. They are not inherently good or bad.
藥物只是化學品。它們本質上沒有好壞之分。
The route of administration affects the drug’s effect.
給藥途徑影響藥物的效果。
Why do doctors use intravenous and gas masks to deliver drugs to patients?
為什麼醫生要使用靜脈和防毒面具給病人送藥？
The brain is protected from certain chemicals in the bloodstream by thicker walls surrounding the brain's blood vessels.
大腦血管周圍較厚的壁可以保護大腦免受血液中某些化學物質的影響。
This is the blood-brain barrier.
這是血腦屏障。
Psychoactive drugs are able to pass this barrier and get into the brain.
精神活性藥物能夠通過這一屏障並進入大腦。
Molecules either mimic or block naturally occurring neurotransmitters in the brain.
分子模仿或阻斷大腦中天然存在的神經遞質。
Agonists: Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters.
激動劑：模仿神經遞質的藥物。
Antagonists: Drugs that block neurotransmitters.
拮抗劑：阻斷神經遞質的藥物。
No matter what mechanism they use, drugs alter the natural levels of neurotransmitters, and affect consciousness.
無論他們使用什麼機制，藥物都會改變神經遞質的自然水平，並影響意識。
Tolerance: A physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect.
耐受性：一種生理變化，需要更多相同的藥物才能達到相同的效果。
Tolerance will cause withdrawal symptoms.
耐受會導致戒斷症狀。
Withdrawal symptoms are a craving for a drug's effect, and range from mild to severe depending on the potency/type of drug and the duration in which it was used.
戒斷症狀是對藥物作用的渴望，其範圍從輕微到嚴重，取決於藥物的效力/類型和使用時間。
Stimulants are drugs that speed up bodily processes/metabolic activity.
興奮劑是加速身體過程/代謝活動的藥物。
For example, cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine (nicotine is actually both a stimulant and a depressant, but for the AP psychology test it is a stimulant).
例如，古柯鹼、安非他明和尼古丁（尼古丁實際上既是興奮劑又是抑制劑，但對於 AP 心理測試來說，它是一種興奮劑）。
Depressants slow down metabolic processes.
抑制劑減緩新陳代謝過程。
Examples are alcohol (has stimulant like effects at first, but is a depressant at higher doses), barbiturates, and heroin, morphine.
例子是酒精（起初具有類似興奮劑的作用，但在較高劑量時是一種鎮靜劑）、巴比妥類藥物和海洛因、嗎啡。
Hallucinogens do not necessarily speed up or slow down the body; they change perceptions by interfering with sensory processing systems in the brain such as the thalamus.
致幻劑不一定會使身體加速或減速；它們通過干擾大腦中的感覺處理系統（如丘腦）來改變感知。
Examples: LSD, Peyote, Psilocybin (mushrooms), marijuana (for AP test).
示例：LSD、仙人掌、賽洛西賓（蘑菇）、大麻（用於 AP 測試）。
Morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine are all similar in chemical structure to opium, which comes from a poppy plant.
嗎啡、海洛因、美沙酮、可待因在化學結構上都與鴉片相似，鴉片來自罌粟植物。
Opiates are depressants which cause drowsiness and a euphoria associated with elevated endorphin levels.
阿片類藥物是一種鎮靜劑，會引起嗜睡和與內啡肽水平升高相關的欣快感。
Fairly addictive and withdrawal symptoms can be severe.
上癮和戒斷症狀會「狠」嚴重。
Drugs: Reverse Tolerance
藥物：反向耐受
Some amount of certain drugs can remain in the body for weeks: ingesting more THC at a later period may add to the lingering amount.
某些藥物可能會在體內停留數周：後期攝入更多的 THC 可能會增加滯留量。
THC/Tetrahydrocannabinol is the active compound in marijuana and stores itself in fat cells.
THC/四氫大麻酚是大麻中的活性化合物，並儲存在脂肪細胞中。
The addition of more substance to the lingering amount is sometimes called reverse tolerance because the second dose may be less than the first, but cause the same or greater effects
在滯留量中添加更多物質有時稱為反向耐受，因為第二次劑量可能少於第一次，但會產生相同或更大的效果。
待補充
心理学卷·其之陆·學習之理
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學習被定義為由經驗引起的行為的長期變化。
Brief changes in behavior are not considered learning.
行為的短暫變化不被視為學習。
Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity and neural plasticity, is the ability of the brain to change throughout an individual's life, e.g., brain activity associated with a given function can be transferred to a different location, the proportion of neurons can change, and synapses may strengthen or weaken over time
神經可塑性，也稱為大腦可塑性和神經可塑性，是大腦在個體的一生中發生變化的能力，例如，與給定功能相關的大腦活動可以轉移到不同的位置，神經元的比例可以改變，突觸隨著時間的推移可能會增強或減弱
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.
長時程增強 (LTP)是基於近期活動模式的突觸持續增強。
These are patterns of synaptic activity that produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons.
這些是突觸活動的模式，可在兩個神經元之間產生持久的信號傳輸增加。
Classical conditioning involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event.
經典條件反射涉及與某種已經自然發生的事件形成關聯。
Described by Ivan Pavlov and involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex or involuntary behavior (e.g., blinking, salivating, muscle tension).
由 Ivan Pavlov 描述，涉及在反射或非自願行為（例如眨眼、流口水、肌肉緊張）之前放置中性信號。
Ivan Pavlov made some interesting observations about learning; coined classical conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov 對學習做了一些有趣的觀察；創造了經典條件反射。
Unconditioned stimulus(US): The original stimulus – the food.
無條件刺激：原始刺激——食物。
Unconditioned response(UR): The response towards that unconditioned stimulus – the salivating.
無條件反應：對無條件刺激的反應——流口水。
Neutral stimulus(NS): A stimulus that has no conditioned response – a bell.
中性刺激：沒有條件反應的刺激——音叉。
Conditioned stimulus(CS): What the organism has learned to pair – the bell.
條件刺激：有機體學會配對的東西——音叉。
Conditioned response(CR): The response from the conditioned stimulus.
條件反應：來自條件刺激的反應。
Delayed conditioning: Acquisition will occur fastest if the bell is rung, and while it is still ringing, the dogs are presented with food.
延遲調節：如果鈴聲響起，獲取速度最快，而當鈴聲仍然響起時，狗就會得到食物。
Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning, the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS begins and ends before the US is presented. The stimulus-free period is called the trace interval or the conditioning interval.
'跟蹤調節：在跟蹤調節期間，條件刺激(CS)和無條件刺激(US)不重疊。 相反，CS 在US出現之前開始和結束。 無刺激期稱為跟蹤間隔或調節間隔。
Simultaneous conditioning: the CS and US are presented and terminated at the same time.
同時調節：CS 和 US 同時呈現和終止。
Backward conditioning: US is presented first and is followed by the CS. This is very ineffective.
後向條件反射：首先呈現 US，然後是 CS。 這是非常無效的。
Acquisition: Learning has taken place once the animal responds to the CS without a presentation of the unconditioned stimulus.
習得：一旦動物對 CS 做出反應而沒有無條件刺激的表現，學習就發生了。
Extinction: The process of unlearning behavior. Extinction has taken place when the CS no longer exhibits a CR (bell no longer causes salivation).
滅絕：忘卻行為的過程。 當 CS 不再表現出 CR（音叉不再引起流口水）時，就發生了滅絕。
Spontaneous recovery: Sometimes, after a CR has been extinguished and no further training has taken place, CR will appear in the presence of the CS.
自發恢復：有時，在 CR 熄滅且未進行進一步培訓後，CR 會出現在 CS 面前。
Generalization: Animals may come to generalize the sound of the bell with other stimuli, like a tuning fork or a whistle.
概括：動物可能會用其他刺激來概括鐘聲，如音叉或哨子。
Discrimination: Animals can be trained to discriminate between stimuli, responding to a bell and not a whistle.
辨別力：可以訓練動物區分刺激，對鈴聲而不是口哨做出反應。
John B. Watson:
Little Albert and Aversive conditioning
小阿爾伯特和厭惡性條件反射
嚇小孩.jpg
Aversive conditioning is commonly used: people who paint their nails with a terrible tasting material to stop themselves from biting their nails is a form of aversive conditioning.
厭惡性調節是常用的：人們用一種難聞的材料塗指甲以阻止自己咬指甲是厭惡性調節的一種形式。
First order conditioning is the regular process of pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned response (bell with salivating).
一階條件反射是將中性刺激與無條件反應（鈴與流涎）配對的常規過程。
Second order conditioning is pairing another neutral stimulus (a light) with the previously conditioned stimulus (the bell) in order to eventually make the light a conditioned stimulus.
二階條件反射是將另一個中性刺激（光）與先前條件刺激（鈴鐺）配對，以最終使光成為條件刺激。
鈴響(NS) + 食盆(US) → 狗激(UR) ： 鈴(響CS) → 狗激(CR)
（更牛逼的）鈴響(CS) + 燈亮(NS) → 狗激(CR) ： 燈亮(CS) → 狗激(CR)
Learned Taste Aversions: If you ingest an unusual food or drink, and then you become nauseous, you’ll most likely develop an aversion to that particular food.
習得性厭惡：如果你攝入了一種不尋常的食物或飲料，然後你變得噁心，你很可能會對這種特定的食物產生厭惡感。
In some therapeutic settings, therapists give alcoholics a drinking containing a nausea-producing drug.
在某些治療環境中，治療師會給酗酒者提供含有引起噁心的藥物的飲料。
John Garciaand Robert Koelling illustrate how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others.
約翰·加西亞（John Garcia）和羅伯特·科林（Robert Koelling）說明了老鼠是如何比其他人更容易學會建立某些聯繫的。
They made rats learn that a noise would be paired with a shock and an unusual-tasting water with nausea.
他們讓老鼠知道，噪音會伴隨著震驚和不尋常的味道伴隨著噁心的水。
However, the rats were unable to make the connection between unusual tasting water and the shock.
然而，老鼠無法將不尋常的水味與休克聯繫起來。
Edward Thorndike Experiment
愛德華桑代克實驗
The law of effect states that if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase.
效應定律指出，如果行為的後果是令人愉快的，那麼刺激-反應的聯繫就會加強，行為的可能性就會增加。
If the S-R connection is unpleasant, the likelihood of the behavior will decrease.
如果刺激-反應連接令人不愉快，則該行為的可能性會降低。
Operant conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
操作性條件反射 是一個學習過程，通過該過程，行為的強度會通過強化或懲罰來改變。
First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist. Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior.
最早由美國心理學家 B. F. Skinner 描述。涉及在行為後應用「強化或懲罰」。
Behavior is either strengthened or weakened by reinforcement or punishment.
通過強化或懲罰，行為要麼得到加強，要麼被削弱。
Reinforcer/reinforcement: Anything that makes a behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer.
強化物：任何使行為更有可能發生的東西都是強化物。
Positive reinforcement refers to the addition of something pleasant. For example, food, shelter, water.
正強化是指增加一些令人愉快的東西。例如，食物、住所、水。
Negative reinforcement removing something unpleasant. For example, a loud noise, darkness, pain.
負強化' 去除不愉快的東西。例如，巨響、黑暗、疼痛。
Punishment is anything that makes a behavior less likely to reoccur.
懲罰 是任何使行為不太可能再次發生的東西。
Positive punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior. For example, a shock.
正懲罰：添加厭惡刺激以減少行為。例如，震驚。
Negative punishment (omission training): Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. For example, taking away a child’s toy.
負懲罰（遺漏訓練）：去除令人愉悅的刺激以減少行為。例如，拿走孩子的玩具。
Escape conditioning (escape learning) occurs when an aversive stimulus is presented and an animal responds by leaving the stimulus situation.
逃避條件反射（逃避學習）發生在出現厭惡刺激並且動物通過離開刺激情境做出反應時。
Avoidance conditioning (learning) enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether.
迴避條件反射（學習）使人能夠完全避免不愉快的刺激。
Both escape and avoidance conditioning are types of negative reinforcement, both result in an increase of the behavior that terminated or avoided the aversive stimulus.
「逃避」和「迴避條件反射」都是「負強化」的類型，都導致終止或避免厭惡刺激的行為增加。
(Reinforcement: Increases/Maintains Behavior)
（強化：增加/保持行為）
(Punishment: Decreases Behavior)
（懲罰：減少行為）
Positive(add stimulus)+Reinforcement: Add a pleasant stimulus to increase/maintain behavior
積極（添加刺激）+強化：添加令人愉悅的刺激以增加/保持行為
Positive(add stimulus)+Punishment: Add an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior
正面（增加刺激）+懲罰：增加厭惡刺激以減少行為
Negative(remove stimulus)+Reinforcement: Remove aversive stimulus to increase/maintain behavior
負面（去除刺激）+強化：去除厭惡刺激以增加/維持行為
Negative(remove stimulus)+Punishment: Remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior
負面（去除刺激）+懲罰：去除令人愉悅的刺激以減少行為
Shaping reinforces the steps used to reach a single desired behavior.
塑造強化了用於達到單一期望行為的步驟。
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The goal of shaping is to mold a single behavior (e.g., a bar press by a rat).
塑造的目標是塑造一個單一的行為（例如，老鼠的槓鈴推舉）。
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Chaining: Involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior.
連結：涉及加強按順序發生的個體反應以形成複雜的行為。
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For example, rewarding an animal after completing an obstacle course.
例如，在完成障礙課程後獎勵動物。
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The goal of chaining is to link together a number of separate behaviors into a more complex activity.
連結的目標是將許多單獨的行為連結到一個更複雜的活動中。
Primary reinforcers things like food, water, rest, sex. They are rewarding generally because they help the organism survive.
初級強化物，如食物、水、休息、性。它們通常是有益的，因為它們幫助有機體生存。
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Secondary reinforcers are things that the organism has learned to have value. For example, saying thank you, getting good grades, showing up on time, etc.
次要強化物是有機體已經學會有價值的東西。例如，說謝謝，取得好成績，準時出現等。
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Money is called a generalized reinforcer because it can be traded for virtually anything.
金錢被稱為廣義強化物，因為它幾乎可以用來換取任何東西。
Reinforcement differs between individuals.
強化因人而異。
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Premack Principle: Whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the activity that is not preferred.
普雷馬克原則：兩種活動中的任何一種都可以用來加強不喜歡的活動。
Schedules of reinforcement are the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced for a particular behavior.
強化時間表是確定有機體針對特定行為強化的頻率的規則。
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Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses (press this lever 40 times and you get…).
固定比率：在固定數量的響應後提供強化（按此控制杆 40 次，您會得到……）。
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Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is performed following the passage of a fixed amount of time.
固定間隔：在經過固定的時間後，在行為執行後提供強化。
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Variable ratio: Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses (this is how slot machines work – sometimes they pay out on the first pull, sometimes after hundreds).
可變比率：在可變數量的響應後提供強化（這就是老虎機的工作方式——有時它們會在第一次拉動時支付，有時在數百次之後）。
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Variable interval: Reinforcement is delivered after a behavior is performed following the passage of a variable amount of time.
可變間隔：在經過可變的時間後，在執行行為後提供強化。
Albert Bandura
Observational Learning: People and animals learn through observing others.（看看你的。）
觀察學習：人和動物通過觀察他人來學習。
Modeling has two components: observation and imitation.
建模有兩個組成部分：觀察和模仿。
(Robert) Rescorla's Contingency model of classical conditioning reflects a cognitive spin on classical conditioning, positing that it is necessary for one event to reliably predict another for a strong association between the two to result – while Pavlov's model holds that the strength of an association between two evens is closely linked to the number of times they have been paired in time.
羅伯特·雷斯科拉（Robert Rescorla）的經典條件反射的偶然性模型反映了經典條件反射的認知旋轉，假設一個事件必須可靠地預測另一個事件才能導致兩者之間的強關聯——而巴甫洛夫的模型認為兩個事件之間關聯的強度與他們及時配對的次數密切相關。
Abstract learning involves understanding concepts such as a tree or different rather than just learning to peck at a disk in order to secure a reward.
抽象學習涉及理解諸如樹或不同的概念，而不僅僅是為了獲得獎勵而學習啄磁碟。
Pigeons have been shown a particular shape (square or triangle) and rewarded in one series of trails when they picked the same shape out of two choices. Suggests that pigeons can understand concepts rather than just S-R connections.
當鴿子從兩種選擇中挑選出相同的形狀時，鴿子會被展示出一種特定的形狀（正方形或三角形）並在一系列路徑中獲得獎勵。表明鴿子可以理解概念而不僅僅是 S-R 連接。
Edward Tolman conducted an experiment with three sets of rats.
愛德華·托爾曼用三組老鼠做了一個實驗。
The first set was rewarded for completing a maze.
第一組通過迷宮獲得獎勵。
The second set never received any rewards.
第二組沒有得到任何獎勵。
Third set was not rewarded during the first half of the trials.
第三盤在前半場的選拔賽中未獲獎勵。
The third group's performance was very similar to the second group – slow. However, the third group's performance improved dramatically and suddenly once it began to be rewarded for finishing the maze.
第三組的表現和第二組非常相似——慢。然而，第三組在完成迷宮後獲得獎勵後，表現突然顯著改善。
The third group of rats learned their way around in the first trials, but their performance did not improve because they was no incentive to run the maze quickly.
第三組老鼠在第一次試驗中學會了如何走，但它們的表現並沒有提高，因為它們沒有動力快速走迷宮。
Tolman suggested that the dramatic increase in performance was due to the rats making a mental map of the maze during the first trial and then used this knowledge once they were aware that they'd be rewarded.
Tolman認為，表現的顯著提高是因為在第一次試驗中，老鼠在大腦中繪製了迷宮地圖，然後在意識到自己會得到獎勵時使用了這一知識。
Wolfgang Kohler and Insightful learning
沃爾夫岡·科勒 (Wolfgang Kohler) 和有見地的學習
Insight learning occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem.
當一個人突然意識到如何解決問題時，就會發生洞察力學習。
Kohler argued that learning often happened in this sudden way due to insight rather than because of the gradual strengthening of the SR (stimulus-response) connection.
科勒認為，由於洞察力而不是因為 SR（刺激 - 反應）連接的逐漸加強，學習經常以這種突然的方式發生。
教學時間到，wikitable起——！（應急搬運，整改完畢）
| 固定間隔(Fixed Interval) | 定時獎勵(Reward on fixed time basis) | 導致平均和不規則的表現(Leads to average and irregular performance) | 行為的快速消退(Fast extinction of behavior) |
| 固定比率(Fixed Ratio) | 獎勵與特定數量的響應相關(Reward tied to specific number of responses) | 快速穩定的性能(Quick and stable performance) | 行為的中速消退(Moderately fast extinction of behavior) |
| 可變間隔(Variable Interval) | 不同時間段後給予的獎勵(Reward given after varying periods of time) | 導致適度的高和穩定的性能(Leads to moderately high and stable performance) | 行為的緩慢消退(Slow extinction of behavior) |
| 可變比率(Variable Ratio) | 獎勵某些行為(Reward given for some behaviors) | 快速穩定的性能(Quick and stable performance) | 行為消退非常緩慢(Very slow extinction of behavior) |
待補充
心理学卷·其之柒·認知之律
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記憶被定義為任何表明學習隨著時間的推移而持續存在的跡象。
Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes.
認知心理學是對心理過程的研究。
Such as attention, language, memory, perception, problem solving, thinking, and creativity.
例如注意力、語言、記憶力、感知力、解決問題的能力、思考能力和創造力。
Information Processing Model proposes the stages that information passes through before it is stored.
信息處理模型提出了信息在存儲之前所經過的階段。
Sensory Memory is first stage in the information processing model and is the gateway between perception and memory.
感覺記憶是信息處理模型的第一階段，是感知和記憶之間的門戶。
Iconic memory is visual sensory memory and lasts for only a few tenths of a second.
標誌性記憶是視覺感官記憶，僅持續十分之幾秒。
Echoic memory is auditory sensory memory and lasts for three or four seconds.
回聲記憶是聽覺感覺記憶，持續三到四秒。
Items in sensory memory are constantly being replaced.
感覺記憶中的項目不斷被替換。
George Sperling Experiment
喬治斯珀林實驗
Participants were very briefly shown a matrix of characters.
參與者被非常簡短地展示了一個字符矩陣。
Then a tone was sounded. Either a high tone, mid tone, or low tone.
然後一個音調響起。 高音、中音或低音。
Then participants were asked to recall the row of characters corresponding to that tone.
然後要求參與者回憶與該音調相對應的一排字符。
The experiment demonstrated that the entire grid must be held in sensory memory because participants did not know which tone would be cued.
實驗表明，整個網格必須保持在感覺記憶中，因為參與者不知道會提示哪種音調。
Short-term memory is the memory system responsible for the temporary storage of information.
短期記憶是負責暫時存儲信息的記憶系統。
Units of information are stored for a duration of 10-30 seconds.
信息單位的存儲時間為 10-30 秒。
George Miller researched how many units we can hold in short-term memory.
喬治米勒研究了我們可以在短期記憶中保存多少單位。
He coined the term the magical number seven plus/minus two. You can hold roughly 7±2 units of information in short-term.
他創造了神奇的數字七加/減二這個詞。你可以在短期內持有大約 7±2 個單位的信息。
Maintenance Rehearsal is simple repetition to keep an item in short-term memory until it can be used.
維護排練是簡單的重複，以將項目保留在短期記憶中，直到可以使用為止。
Elaborative Rehearsal involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory.
精心排練涉及思考新信息如何與已經存儲在長期記憶中的信息相關聯。
Mnemonic devices are memory aides. They are strategies to help store information.
助記符設備是記憶助手。它們是幫助存儲信息的策略。
Chunking involves taking long strings of information, and grouping them into smaller, more manageable bits of information.
分塊涉及獲取長串信息，並將它們分組為更小、更易於管理的信息位。
Method of Loci: This involves imagining what you're trying to remember.
定位方法：這涉及想像您要記住的內容。
Dual-coding hypothesis: It is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone.
雙重編碼假設：記住帶有相關圖像的單詞比單獨記住單詞或圖像更容易。
Self-reference effect: It is easier to remember things that are personally relevant.
自我參照效應：更容易記住與個人相關的事情。
State-dependent memory: Information is more likely to be remembered if the attempt to retrieve it occurs in a situation similar to the situation in which in was encoded.
狀態相關記憶：如果試圖檢索信息的嘗試發生在與編碼 in 的情況相似的情況下，則更有可能記住信息。
State-dependent memory also applies to information encoded while in a particular state of mind, such as when information is encoded under the influence of a drug (e.g., caffeine).
狀態依賴記憶也適用於在特定心理狀態下編碼的信息，例如當信息在藥物（例如咖啡因）的影響下編碼時。
Long-term memory is defined as our 「permanent」 storage.
長期記憶被定義為我們的「永久」存儲。
Declarative (explicit) memories: Are memories a person can consciously retrieve.
陳述性（顯性）記憶：一個人可以有意識地檢索的記憶。
Nondeclarative (implicit) memory: Are memories beyond conscious consideration.
非陳述性（隱性）記憶：是超出有意識考慮的記憶。
Episodic memories are of specific events, stored as a sequential series.
情景記憶是特定事件的，存儲為連續系列。
示例：你去和____閒逛的時候，你們去____，然後_____
Semantic memories are general knowledge of the world, stored as facts or categories.
語義記憶是世界的一般知識，存儲為事實或類別。
示例：俄羅斯的首都是_____
Procedural memories are memories of skills and how to perform them.
程序性記憶是對技能以及如何執行它們的記憶。
示例：給手機充電。
Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. A person who sees the word 「green」 will be slightly faster to recognize the word 「tree.」 This happens because green and tree are closely associated in memory.
啟動是內隱記憶效應，其中暴露於刺激會影響對後來刺激的反應。看到「綠色」這個詞的人會稍微更快地識別「樹」這個詞。發生這種情況是因為綠色和樹在內存中密切相關。
Classical Conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (bell).
經典條件反射是指一種學習過程，其中生物有效的刺激（食物）與先前的中性刺激（鈴鐺）配對。
Declarative Memory: Sematic memory, Episodic memory.
陳述性記憶：語義記憶、情景記憶。
Nondeclarative Memory: Procedural, Classical conditioning, Priming.
非陳述性記憶：程序，經典條件反射，啟動。
Herman Ebbinghaus was a pioneer in memory research;
赫爾曼·艾賓浩斯是記憶研究的先驅。
He would write out very long lists of arbitrary words and try to recall them.
他會寫出很長的任意單詞列表並嘗試回憶它們（例如，CUH、TIR、GHO、SWE 等）。
Herman Ebbinghaus is most famous for developing the learning curve and the forgetting curve.
赫爾曼·艾賓浩斯以發展學習曲線和遺忘曲線而聞名。
The learning curve described by Ebbinghaus refers to how fast one learns information.
艾賓浩斯描述的學習曲線是指一個人學習信息的速度。
The sharpest increase occurs after the first try and then gradually evens out, meaning that less and less new information is retained after each repetition.
第一次嘗試後增加最多，然後逐漸變平，這意味著每次重複後保留的新信息越來越少。
Forgetting Curve: You will forget information at a exponential rate at first.
遺忘曲線：一開始你會以指數速度遺忘信息。
Eventually you will only remember a small amount of what you learned, unless you practice.
最終你只會記住一小部分你學到的東西，除非你練習。
Levels of Processing Model: Memories, in the levels of processing model, are neither short nor long term.
處理模型的層次：在處理模型的層次上，記憶既不是短期的，也不是長期的。
Memories are deeply processed or shallowly processed.
記憶被深加工或淺加工。
This model explains why we remember stories better than plain statements.
這個模型解釋了為什麼我們比簡單的陳述更能記住故事。
Shallowly Processed: Images, sounds
淺層處理：圖像、聲音
Deeply Processed: Stories.
深加工：故事。
The next thing we will be discussing is our ability to recall information.
接下來我們要討論的是我們回憶信息的能力。
顯示5秒後隱藏隱藏信息，然後盡你所能用筆記錄記住的所有單詞。
Rubber Bug Dislocate
Former Trip Mischief
Tease States Dog Obvious
The primacy effect predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list.
首要效應預測我們更有可能回憶起列表開頭出現的項目。
The recency effect demonstrates our ability to recall the items at the end of list.
近因效應展示了我們回憶列表末尾項目的能力。
Primacy and recency effect are a part of the Serial Position Effect. This is also called the serial position curve.
首要效應和近因效應是序列位置效應的一部分。 這也稱為串行位置曲線。
Serial Position Effect is the tendency for recall to be the highest for the first and last items in a series.
序列位置效應是一系列中第一個和最後一個項目的召回率最高的趨勢。
Have you ever tried to recall something, but you just cannot say it?
你有沒有試過回憶一些事情，但你就是不能說出來？
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the inability to remember information you've previously stored.
舌尖現象是無法記住您以前存儲的信息。
怎麼會事呢？
Retrieval
恢復
Semantic Network Theory considers knowledge as semantic relations between concepts in a network. This is often used as a form of knowledge representation.
語義網絡理論認為知識是網絡中概念之間的語義關係，經常被用作知識表示的一種形式。
In a semantic network, each idea is called a node and nodes are connected to one another similar to how roads are connected to cities. But the connection between the nodes are not always created equal. The strength of the connection is related to how frequently the connection is used.
在語義網絡中，每個想法都被稱為一個節點，節點之間的連接就像道路與城市之間的連接一樣。但是節點之間的連接並不總是相等的。連接的強度與使用連接的頻率有關。
Spreading Activation: The activation of a few nodes can lead to a pattern of activation within the network that spreads onward.
擴散激活:幾個節點的激活可以導致網絡內擴散的激活模式。
Semantic network theory may explain why the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs because if a connection between two nodes is weak, we may have trouble retrieving that node of information.
語義網絡理論可以解釋為什麼會出現舌尖現象，因為如果兩個節點之間的連接薄弱，我們可能很難檢索到那個信息節點。
Flashbulb Memory is a memory that is highly detailed and exceptionally vivid.
閃光燈記憶是一種非常詳細和非常生動的記憶。
It is said to be like a 'snapshot' of a moment that was surprising and consequential.
據說，這就像一個瞬間的「快照」，這是令人驚訝的和重要的。
Constructed Memory, also know as Memory Reconstruction: A memory of an event that did not actually happen or is only partially fact based.
建構記憶，也被稱為記憶重建:對一個事件的記憶，實際上沒有發生或只是部分基於事實。
Studies show that leading questions can easily influence us to recall false details, and questioners can create an entirely new memory by repeatedly asking insistent questions.
研究表明，引導性問題很容易影響我們回憶錯誤的細節，提問者可以通過反覆問堅持的問題來創造一個全新的記憶。
遺忘Forgetting
One cause of forgetting is natural decay. As time goes on, the memories we have fade.
遺忘的原因之一是自然腐爛。時光荏苒，我們的記憶漸漸淡去。
But another factor in forgetting is interference. Sometimes other information in your memory competes with what you're trying to recall.
但另一個導致遺忘的因素是干擾。有時，您記憶中的其他信息會與您試圖回憶的內容競爭。
Retroactive interference: Learning new information interferes with the recall of older information.
追溯干擾：學習新信息會干擾舊信息的回憶。
Proactive interference: Older information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently.
主動干擾：以前學到的舊信息會干擾對最近學到的信息的回憶。
Amnesia is forgetting or the inability to encode new memories due to brain trauma or disease.
健忘症是由於腦外傷或疾病而忘記或無法編碼新記憶。
Anterograde Amnesia is the inability to encode new memories as a result of damage to the hippocampus.
順行性健忘症是由於海馬體受損而無法編碼新記憶。
Retrograde Amnesia is a loss of memory for events that occurred or were learned due to brain trauma or disease. But one has the ability to encode new information.
逆行性健忘症是對因腦外傷或疾病而發生或學習的事件的記憶喪失，但是一個人有能力對新信息進行編碼。
語言Language
Language and thought are interactive processes. Here we will be considering phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics, and the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
語言和思想是互動的過程。在這裡，我們將考慮音素、詞素、句法、語義和語言相對性假設。
Phonemes are the smallest units of sound used in language. Phonemes are studied in linguistics. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in words such as cat, kit, scat, skit.
音素是語言中使用的最小的聲音單位。音素是在語言學中研究的。一個例子是英語音素 /k/，它出現在諸如 cat、kit、scat、skit 之類的詞中。
A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding.
語素是語言中最小的語法單位。語素與單詞不同，兩者的區別在於語素可能獨立也可能不獨立，而根據定義，單詞是獨立的。
例子：
-ed = 把動詞變成過去時
un- = 表示不的前綴
a
I
Syntax: Is the order in which we use words.
語法：是我們使用單詞的順序。
Semantics: Refers to word meaning or word choice.
語義：指詞義或詞選擇。
Psychologist Benjamin Whorf theorized that the language we use might control and limit our thinking.
心理學家班傑明·沃爾夫認為，我們使用的語言可能會控制和限制我們的思維。
The theory that the language we use has influence over our thinking is called the linguistic relativity hypothesis.
我們使用的語言對我們的思維有影響的理論被稱為語言相對論假設。
For example, there are 50 Eskimo words for 「snow.」 This may have practical value for them.
例如，「雪」有 50 個愛斯基摩語單詞。這可能對他們有實際價值。
Language acquisition occurs at about four months.
語言習得大約在四個月時發生。
Holophrastic stage (one-word stage): This is when babies speak in single words (holophrases). Usually occurs by a baby’s first birthday.
Holophrastic 階段（單字階段）：這是嬰兒說單個單詞（holophrases）的時候。通常發生在嬰兒的第一個生日。
Telegraphic speech (two-word stage): This is when toddlers will combine the words they can say into simple commands. Occurs by 18 months.
電報語音（兩個單詞階段）：這是幼兒將他們可以說的單詞組合成簡單命令的時候。發生在 18 個月。
Overgeneralization: By age three, a child knows many words, but can make mistakes by overextending the rules of language. For example, they may say 「I goed(went) to the store」 or 「I rided(rode) my bike.」
過度概括：到三歲時，孩子會知道很多單詞，但可能會因過度擴展語言規則而犯錯。例如，他們可能會說「I goed(went)」或「I rided(rode)」。
Noam Chomsky theorized that humans are born with the ability to learn a language rapidly. This inborn ability to learn language is called the language acquisition device or the nativist theory of language acquisition.
諾姆喬姆斯基的理論認為，人類生來就有快速學習語言的能力。這種與生俱來的語言學習能力被稱為語言習得裝置或語言習得的先天論。
Chomsky proposed that there is a critical period after birth for learning language.
喬姆斯基提出，出生後有一個學習語言的關鍵期。
啟發式Heuristic
Algorithm: A rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula.
算法：通過使用公式來保證正確解決方案的規則。
A heuristic is a short cut for problem solving.
啟發式是解決問題的捷徑。
For example, if you were trying to guess your friend's password for their email, what are some of the first guesses that come to mind?
例如，如果您試圖猜測您朋友的電子郵件密碼，那麼您首先想到的猜測是什麼？
姓名，生日
Availability Heuristic: Judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind.
可用性啟發式：根據最初想到的類似情況的示例來判斷情況。
For example, you may see a murder on the news in a specific neighbourhood, and then conclude, when you're in that neighborhood, that you're in a highly unsafe area because the first thing that came to mind was the news clip.
例如，您可能會在特定社區的新聞中看到謀殺案，然後得出結論，當您在該社區時，您處於高度不安全的區域，因為首先想到的是新聞剪輯。
Representative Heuristic: Judging a situation or person based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind.
代表性啟發式：根據各個方面與他或她心中的原型的相似程度來判斷情況或人。
解決問題Problem Solving
Using heuristics is typically helpful but it can lead to specific problems.
使用啟發式通常很有幫助，但它可能會導致特定的問題。
Belief Bias/Perseverance: This occurs when we maintain a belief even after evidence for the belief is contradicted.
信念偏見/毅力：即使在信念的證據相互矛盾之後，我們仍保持信念時，就會發生這種情況。
Confirmation Bias: This is searching for information or evidence that supports a belief instead of searching for evidence to the contrary. This can hinder problem solving and objectivity.
確認偏差：這是尋找支持信念的信息或證據，而不是尋找相反的證據。這會阻礙問題的解決和客觀性。
Mental Set (Rigidity): This is a tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past.
思維定勢（剛性）：這是一種只看到過去有效的解決方案的趨勢。
Functional Fixedness: This is the tendency to assume that a given item is useful for only what it was designed to do.
功能固定性：這是一種假設給定項目僅對其設計用途有用的趨勢。
Functional fixedness is opposite to creative thinking.
功能固定與創造性思維相反。
創造力Creativity
Creativity is hard to define.
創造力很難定義。
When judging whether something is creative, we look at whether it is original or novel and whether it somehow fits the situation.
在判斷一個東西是否有創意時，我們會看它是原創的還是新穎的，以及它是否適合這種情況。
Convergent Thinking: This is thinking pointed toward one solution. Determining the correct answer to a multiple choice question is an example.
收斂思維：這是指向一種解決方案的思維。確定多項選擇題的正確答案就是一個例子。
Divergent Thinking: This is thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question.
發散思維：這是一種尋找問題的多個可能答案的思維。
Divergent thinking is similar to brainstorming in that it involves coming up with many different ideas to solve a single problem.
發散思維類似於頭腦風暴，因為它涉及提出許多不同的想法來解決一個問題。
Divergent thinking is more closely related with creativity; creative activities usually involve thinking of new ways to use what we are familiar with to create something new.
發散思維與創造力的關係更為密切；創造性活動通常涉及思考使用我們熟悉的東西創造新事物的新方法。
心理学卷·其之捌·動機之激
！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！！
動機：某人以某種方式行事的一個或多個原因。
Emotion: A natural instinctive state of mind deriving from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.
情緒：源於個人環境、情緒或與他人關係的一種自然本能的心理狀態。
Homeostasis is a balanced internal state.
體內平衡是一種平衡的內部狀態。
Drive Reduction Theory: A need that is biological, and a drive to fulfill that need.
驅動力減少理論：一種生物需求，以及滿足這種需求的驅動力。
If we do not eat, drink, or are cold or physical hurt, we are not in homeostasis, and a 『drive’ is created to get back to homeostasis
如果我們不吃不喝、不感冒或身體受到傷害，我們就不會處於體內平衡狀態，並且會產生一種「驅動力」來恢復體內平衡
Drives are categorized into primary and secondary drives.
驅動力分為主要驅動力和次要驅動力。
Primary drives are biological drives like thirst food, warmth, shelter, and sex.
主要驅動力是生物驅動力，如口渴、溫暖、住所和性。
Secondary drives are learned drives, like how we have learned to acquire money because money can get us a house, food, clothing, etc.
次要驅動力是習得的驅動力，就像我們如何學會獲取金錢一樣，因為金錢可以為我們帶來房子、食物、衣服等。
Secondary drives help get us primary drives.
次要驅動力幫助我們獲得主要驅動力。
Lack of Homeostasis → Need → Drive → Motivation to Act → Homeostasis → L……
缺乏體內平衡→需要→驅動→行動動機→體內平衡→缺……
Criticism of Drive Reduction Theory
對驅動減少理論的批評
Drive Reduction Theory cannot explain why someone would strive to be an Olympic athlete or why a scientist might want to conduct basic research.
驅動力減少理論無法解釋為什麼有人會努力成為一名奧林匹克運動員，或者為什麼科學家可能想要進行基礎研究。
Arousal theory: States that we seek an optimum level of arousal.
喚醒理論：我們尋求最佳喚醒水平的狀態。
Each individual has a different need for excitement or arousal, and we are motivated by activities that will help us achieve their own optimum.
每個人對興奮或喚醒的需求不同，我們的動力來自於有助於我們實現最佳狀態的活動。
耶克斯-多德森定律(Yerkes-Dodson Law)
Most of us perform best with an optimum level of arousal, although this varies with different activities.
我們大多數人在最佳喚醒水平下表現最好，儘管這會因不同的活動而異。
We might perform well at an easy task with a very high level of arousal, but the same high level of arousal would prevent us from performing a difficult task.
我們可能在一項具有非常高的喚醒水平的簡單任務中表現良好，但同樣高水平的喚醒會阻止我們執行一項困難的任務。
Opponent-process theory: Attempts to explain addiction. It states that people are usually at a normal, or baseline state, and that move away from the baseline state.
對抗過程理論：試圖解釋成癮。它指出人們通常處於正常或基線狀態，並且遠離基線狀態。
We feel good from drinking the coffee, because caffeine blocks certain "tiredness" neurotransmitters from binding to neurons in our brain.
我們喝咖啡感覺很好，因為咖啡因會阻止某些「疲勞」神經遞質與我們大腦中的神經元結合。
But, we eventually feel an opponent-process, meaning a motivation to return to our baseline.
但是，我們最終會感覺到對抗的過程，這意味著有動力回到我們的基線。
Withdrawal occurs, and we want to relieve withdrawal symptoms, so we drink more coffee; eventually, our baseline is adjusted down.
發生戒斷，我們想緩解戒斷症狀，所以我們多喝咖啡；最終，我們的基線被向下調整。
Incentives are external stimuli that motivate behavior.
'激勵是激發行為的外部刺激。
Incentives are stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning.
激勵是我們因學習而被吸引的刺激。
We learn to associate some stimuli with rewards and others with punishment and we are motivated to seek rewards.
我們學會將一些刺激與獎勵聯繫起來，而將其他刺激與懲罰聯繫起來，我們有動力去尋求獎勵。
Criticisms of Maslow
對亞伯拉罕馬斯洛的批評
People sometimes act in ways that do not correspond to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
人們有時會以不符合馬斯洛需求層次的方式行事。
Example: Feeding children before yourself.
示例：先餵孩子。
Biological basis for Hunger
飢餓的生物學基礎
The hypothalamus monitors and helps to control body chemistry.
下丘腦監測並幫助控制身體化學。
It regulates glucose and insulin.
它調節葡萄糖和胰島素。
Electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus causes animals to eat.
下丘腦外側的電刺激導致動物進食。
Destruction of the lateral hypothalamus eliminates hunger, and the animal does not eat.
下丘腦外側的破壞消除了飢餓，動物不吃東西。
Electrical stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus causes an animal to stop eating. If this area is destroyed, the animal will continue to eat.
下丘腦腹內側的電刺激會導致動物停止進食。如果該區域被破壞，動物將繼續進食。
Set Point Theory describes how the hypothalamus might decide what impulse to send (eat or not eat).
設定點理論描述了下丘腦如何決定發送什麼衝動（吃或不吃）。
Set-point theory states that the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain body weight.
設定點理論指出，下丘腦想要保持一定的體重。
The hypothalamus tells us to eat or stop eating when some set point is reached and raises or lowers our metabolic rate to maintain a certain weight.
當達到某個設定點並提高或降低我們的新陳代謝率以保持一定的體重時，下丘腦會告訴我們進食或停止進食。
Psychological factors in hunger: External vs. Internal.
飢餓的心理因素：外部與內部
Externals are individuals motivated to eat by external cues such as the attractiveness of the food, availability of food, whether a McDonald's is nearby.
外部因素是由外部線索（例如食物的吸引力、食物的供應情況、附近是否有麥當勞）激發進食的個體。
Internals are individuals less affected by the presence and presentation of food and respond to hunger more from internal processes.
內部人是受食物存在和呈現影響較小的個體，並且更多地通過內部過程對飢餓做出反應。
暴暴暴暴食症(Bulimia)
Bulimics eat a huge amount of food in a short period of time, and then get rid of the food by vomiting, excessive exercise, or by using laxatives.
暴食症患者在短時間內吃下大量食物，然後通過嘔吐、過度運動或使用瀉藥來擺脫食物。
Anorexia Nervosa: anorexics stave themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight.
神經性厭食症：厭食症患者的體重低於正常體重的 85%。
The difference between an anorexic person and a bulimic is their weight. Anorexic people are generally 85% below their weight while bulimics tend to be of average weight.
厭食症患者和暴食症患者的區別在於他們的體重。 厭食症患者的體重通常比他們的體重低 85%，而暴食症患者的體重往往是平均體重。
What are the causes of anorexia and bulimia?
厭食症和貪食症的原因是什麼？
Possibly due to the emphasis on body weight in a specific culture. Western culture emphasizes a low body weight as a sign of a woman's beauty.
可能是由於在特定文化中強調體重。西方文化強調低體重是女性美麗的標誌。
Obesity: people who are severely over weight.
肥胖：嚴重超重的人。
Obese people have unhealthy eating habits or may be genetically predisposed to eat more.
肥胖的人有不健康的飲食習慣，或者可能在基因上傾向於吃得更多。
"Genetics and eating disorders"
「遺傳與飲食失調」
Family history is also another possibility.
家族史也是另一種可能。
Having family with prior eating disorders increases one's likelihood of having a disorder.
有家人以前患有飲食失調會增加一個人患失調症的可能性。
William Masters and Virginia Johnson documented sexual response cycle in men and women.
威廉馬斯特斯和維吉尼亞詹森記錄了男性和女性的性反應周期。
Initial excitement: Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heartrate increase
最初的興奮：生殖器區域充血，陰莖勃起，陰蒂腫脹，呼吸和心率增加
Plateau phase: respiration and heartrate continue at elevated levels, genitals secrete fluid in preparation for intercourse
高原期：呼吸和心率持續升高，生殖器分泌液體以準備xx
Orgasm: Rhythmic genital contractions that help conception, respiration, and heart rate increase, male ejaculation, followed by pleasurable euphoria.
性高潮：有節奏的生殖器收縮有助於受孕、呼吸和心率加快，男性SJ，然後是愉悅的欣快感。
Resolution phase: Respiration and heart rate return to normal. Men experience refractory period (a time period that must elapse before another orgasm can be achieved), women do not have a similar cycle and can repeat the cycle immediately.
Homosexually is not related to traumatic childhood experiences, parenting styles, the quality of relationships with parents, masculinity, or femininity, or whether we are raised by heterosexual or homosexual parents.
同性戀與童年的創傷經歷、養育方式、與父母的關係質量、男性氣質或女性氣質，或者我們是由異性戀還是同性戀父母撫養長大無關。
Although some researchers believe environmental influences probably affect sexual orientation, these factors have not yet been identified.
儘管一些研究人員認為環境影響可能會影響性取向，但這些因素尚未確定。
Some studies indicate that specific brain structures might differ in size in the brains of homosexuals compared with heterosexuals.
一些研究表明，與異性戀者相比，同性戀者大腦中特定的大腦結構在大小上可能有所不同。
Twin studies indicate a genetic component because if one twin is homosexual, there is a higher probability that the other is too.
雙胞胎研究表明存在遺傳因素，因為如果一個雙胞胎是同性戀，那麼另一個雙胞胎的可能性更高。
Research also theorizes that hormones present within the womb might change the developing brain structure, and influence sexual orientation.
研究還推測，子宮內的激素可能會改變發育中的大腦結構，並影響性取向。
Achievement Motivation is one theory that tries to explain motivations behind more complex behaviors.
成就動機是一種試圖解釋更複雜行為背後的動機的理論。
Studies in achievement motivation find that some people have high achievement motivation and consistently feel motivated to challenge themselves more than other people do.
對成就動機的研究發現，有些人具有很高的成就動機，並且始終比其他人更有動力挑戰自己。
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
外在和內在動機
Extrinsic motivators are rewards that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves.
外在動機是我們從外部取得成就的獎勵。
Intrinsic motivators are rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction from hobbies, work, friends, family, etc.
內在動機是我們在內部獲得的獎勵，例如來自愛好、工作、朋友、家人等的享受或滿足。
Knowing what type of motivation an individual responds to can give parents, managers, leaders, etc., insight into what strategies to use to get things done.
了解個人對什麼類型的動機做出反應可以讓父母、經理、領導者等深入了解使用什麼策略來完成工作。
Studies show that if we want an advantageous behavior to continue, intrinsic motivation is most effective.
研究表明，如果我們想要一種有利的行為繼續下去，內在動機是最有效的。
Extrinsic motivators are very effective for a short period of time, and the behavior underlying them will disappear shortly after the external reward disappears.
外在激勵因素在短時間內非常有效，其背後的行為會在外在獎勵消失後不久消失。
Management Theory
管理理論
Theory X: some managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment.
理論X：一些管理者認為，員工只有在得到福利獎勵或受到懲罰威脅時才會工作。
Theory Y: managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.
理論Y：管理者認為員工有內部動機去做好工作，政策應該鼓勵這種內部動機。
Types of Conflict
衝突類型
Approach-approach: Occurs when you must choose between two desirable outcomes.
方法-方法：當您必須在兩個理想結果之間進行選擇時發生。
Avoidance-avoidance: Occurs when you must choose between two unattractive outcomes.
迴避-迴避：當你必須在兩個沒有吸引力的結果之間做出選擇時發生。
Approach-avoidance: exists when one event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features.
避免接近：當一個事件或目標同時具有有吸引力和不吸引人的特徵時存在。
Multiple approach-avoidance: choosing between two or more things, each of which has both desirable and undesirable features.
多重接近避免：在兩個或多個事物之間進行選擇，每個事物都具有可取和不可取的特徵。
Theories of Emotion:
情感理論：
James-Lange Theory of Emotion states that we feel emotion because of biological stress signals.
James-Lange 情緒理論指出，由於生物壓力信號，我們會感受到情緒。
For example, if a dog barks loudly at us, our heart rate increases, we begin to perspire, our breathing increases, and because of these biological stress signals, we then feel a fearful emotion.
例如，如果一隻狗對我們大聲吠叫，我們的心率會增加，我們開始出汗，呼吸也會增加，並且由於這些生物壓力信號，我們會感到恐懼。
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: The biological changes and cognitive awareness of the emotional state occur simultaneously.
Cannon-Bard 情緒理論：情緒狀態的生物學變化和認知意識同時發生。
The thalamus is said to be responsible for both biological changes and cognitive awareness of emotions. After receiving information from environment, it sends signals to our neocortex and autonomic nervous system.
據說丘腦負責生物變化和情緒的認知意識。在接收到來自環境的信息後，它會向我們的新皮質和自主神經系統發送信號。
Stanley Schachter's Two Factor Theory: Schachter showed that people already physiologically excited, experience more intense emotions than people who are not already physiologically excited after both groups are exposed to the same stimulus.
斯坦利沙赫特的雙因素理論：沙赫特表明，在兩組都暴露於相同的刺激後，人們已經生理上興奮，比生理上尚未興奮的人經歷更強烈的情緒。
Example, more excited after a quick jog…
例如，快速慢跑後更興奮……
Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion: Researchers established that people from different cultures are able to label six facial expressions accurately.
情感的非語言表達：研究人員確定，來自不同文化背景的人能夠準確地標記六種面部表情。
How do you measure stress?
你如何衡量壓力？
Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale to measure using life-changing units.
Thomas Holmes 和 Richard Rahe 開發了社會重新調整評定量表，以使用改變生活的單位進行測量。
A person who scores very high on the SSRS is more likely to have stress-related diseases than a person with a low score.
在 SSRS 上得分很高的人比得分低的人更容易患上與壓力有關的疾病。
Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Hans Seyle 的一般適應症候群 (GAS)
GAS is our biological response to many different physical and emotional stressors. The response is very consistent.
GAS 是我們對許多不同的身體和情緒壓力源的生物反應。反應非常一致。
It has three phases: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion
它分為三個階段：警報、抵抗、耗盡
Alarm reaction: Heart rate increases, blood is diverted from other body functions to muscles needed to react. The organism readies itself to meet the challenge through activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
警報反應：心率增加，血液從其他身體功能轉移到需要反應的肌肉。有機體通過激活交感神經系統準備好迎接挑戰。
Resistance: The body remains physiologically ready. Hormones, such as cortisol, are released to maintain this state of readiness. If the resistance stage last too long, the body will deplete its resources.
抵抗力：身體保持生理準備。釋放激素，如皮質醇，以維持這種準備狀態。如果抵抗階段持續太久，身體就會耗盡它的資源。
Exhaustion: The parasympathetic nervous system returns our physiological state to normal. We can become more vulnerable to disease in this stage especially if our resources are depleted.
疲憊：副交感神經系統使我們的生理狀態恢復正常。在這個階段，我們可能更容易感染疾病，尤其是在我們的資源枯竭的情況下。
Seyle's model explains some of the documented problems associated with extended periods of stress.
Seyle 的模型解釋了一些記錄在案的與長期壓力相關的問題。
Excessive stress can contribute to both physical diseases such as some forms of ulcers and heart conditions, and emotion difficulties.
過度的壓力會導致身體疾病，例如某些形式的潰瘍和心臟病，以及情緒困難。
Perceived lack of control over events exacerbates the harmful effects of stress.
感覺缺乏對事件的控制會加劇壓力的有害影響。
Rats given control over the duration of electric shocks are less likely to get ulcers than rats without such control.
對電擊持續時間進行控制的大鼠比沒有這種控制的大鼠不太可能患潰瘍。
Control over events tends to lessen stress, while a perceived lack of control generally makes the event more stressful.
對事件的控制往往會減輕壓力，而感知的缺乏控制通常會使事件更加緊張。
心理学卷·其之玖·發展之學
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發展心理學是關於行為和思想如何在一生中發生變化的。
As you will see, developmental psychology involves some concepts covered in other chapters.
正如您將看到的，「發展心理學」涉及其他章節中涵蓋的一些概念。
Nature vs. Nurture
The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which behaviors are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired (i.e., learned) influences.
先天與後天的爭論涉及行為在多大程度上是遺傳（即遺傳）或後天（即習得）影響的產物。
This chapter begins by discussing influences from nature, and then moves into theories about nurture.
本章首先討論自然的影響，然後進入關於養育的理論。
What research designs do developmental psychologists use?
發展心理學家使用哪些研究設計？
Cross-sectional & Longitudinal Research
橫斷面研究和縱向研究
Cross-sectional research uses participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over the life span.
橫斷面研究使用不同年齡的參與者來比較某些變量在一生中可能如何變化。
A developmental researcher might be interested in how memory changes as we age.
發育……發展心理學研究人員可能對隨著年齡的增長記憶如何變化感興趣。
A cross-sectional research design may choose from different age groups of 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, etc. for the study.
橫斷面研究設計可以從 10-19、20-29、30-39 等不同年齡組中進行選擇。
Cross sectional research is criticized for effects of historical events and cultural trends.
橫斷面研究因歷史事件和文化趨勢的影響而受到批評。
An example is that school memorization may not have been tested as much in one person's lifetime compared to another.
一個例子是，與另一個人相比，在一個人的一生中，學校記憶力的測試可能沒有那麼多。
Longitudinal research takes place over a long period of time with the same individuals. Individuals are tested on some variable after a defined length of time (e.g., every five years). Problems with longitudinal research are cost and tracking/accounting.
縱向研究是在很長一段時間內對同一個人進行的。在定義的時間長度後（例如，每五年）對個人進行一些變量的測試。縱向研究的問題是成本和跟蹤/會計。
Our genes determine some of the abilities and traits we are born (e.g., hair and eye color, height). They could also determine some personality traits, but more research must be done.
我們的基因決定了我們與生俱來的一些能力和特徵（例如，頭髮和眼睛的顏色、身高）。他們還可以確定一些人格特徵，但必須做更多的研究。
Our prenatal (during pregnancy) environment is very important in our development.
我們的產前（懷孕期間）環境對我們的發育非常重要。
Teratogens are certain chemicals that can cause harm if ingested or contracted by the mother.
致畸劑是某些化學物質，如果被母親攝入或感染，可能會造成傷害。
The placenta, a temporary organ, can filter out many harmful substances, but teratogens pass through this barrier and affect the fetus.
胎盤是一個臨時器官，可以過濾掉很多有害物質，但致畸物質會穿過這個屏障，影響胎兒。
關於「胎盤」的網絡圖片可能會引起您的不適（涉及人體解剖云云，反正少不了一堆血），非必要請勿搜索。
Alcohol is a teratogen. A very harmful one. Even small amounts of alcohol can change the way the fetal brain develops.
酒精是一種致畸劑。一個非常有害的。即使是少量的酒精也會改變胎兒大腦的發育方式。
Children whose mothers' drink heavily or even moderately are likely to develop fetal alcohol syndrome. Children born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) have small, malformed skulls and developmental disabilities.
母親大量飲酒甚至適度飲酒的孩子很可能患上胎兒酒精綜合症。出生時患有胎兒酒精綜合症 (FAS) 的兒童有小而畸形的頭骨和發育障礙。
Fetal alcohol effect: Children born with fetal alcohol effect do not show all the signs of FAS, but many have developmental problems.
胎兒酒精效應：出生時有胎兒酒精效應的兒童並沒有表現出 FAS 的所有跡象，但許多兒童有發育問題。
Other psychoactive drugs can harm newborns.
其他精神活性藥物會傷害新生兒。
Infants can be born addicted to a psychoactive drug if the mother was a heavy user during pregnancy.
如果母親在懷孕期間大量使用精神藥物，嬰兒可能會在出生時對精神藥物上癮。
Since the withdrawal symptoms can kill the infant, infants sometimes have to be put on a morphine drip to slowing wean them off substances they have absorbed through the placenta.
由於戒斷症狀會殺死嬰兒，因此有時必須給嬰兒滴嗎啡，以減緩他們從胎盤吸收的物質的斷奶。
Infant Development
嬰兒發育
All babies exhibit a set of specific reflexes which are inborn, automatic processes to certain stimuli.
所有嬰兒都表現出一組特定的反射，這些反射是天生的，對某些刺激的自動過程。
They are rooting, sucking, grasping (Palmer reflex), Moro, and Babinski.
它們是生根、吸吮、抓握（帕爾默反射）、莫羅和巴賓斯基。
Rooting reflex: When touched on the cheek, a baby will turn their head and attempt to put the object in its mouth.
生根反射：當觸摸臉頰時，嬰兒會轉過頭並試圖將物體放入嘴裡。
Sucking reflex: The baby with suckle things put in its mouth.
吸吮反射：寶寶嘴裡放著吸吮的東西。
Grasping (Palmer) reflex: If an object is placed into a baby’s palm, it will curl its fingers to grasp the object.
抓握（Palmer）反射：如果將物體放在嬰兒的手掌中，它會彎曲手指以抓住物體。
Moro reflex: When startled, a baby will fling his or her limbs out and then quickly retract them, making himself or herself as small as possible.
摩洛反射：當嬰兒受到驚嚇時，四肢會向外張開，然後迅速縮回，使自己儘可能小。
Banbinski reflex: When a baby’s foot is stroked, he or she will spread her big toe.
班賓斯基反射：當嬰兒的腳被撫摸時，他或她會張開大腳趾。
Babies enjoy sugar when they're born; other tastes develop with maturity.
嬰兒出生時就喜歡吃糖；其他口味隨著成熟而發展。
Babies are born with very bad eye sight; they can only see 8-12 inches in front of them.
嬰兒出生時視力很差；他們只能看到他們面前的8-12英寸。
Vision improves with age.
視力隨著年齡的增長而提高。
Babies have a preference for faces and face-like objects; they are drawn to their mother’s face or close guardian.
嬰兒對臉和類似臉的物體有偏好；他們被母親或親密的監護人的臉所吸引。
Babies can hear even before birth, in the womb.
嬰兒甚至可以在出生前，在子宮內聽到。
Motor development
運動開發
Our motor control develops as neurons in our brain connect with one another and become myelinated.
我們的運動控制隨著我們大腦中的神經元相互連接並形成有髓鞘而發展。
Babies, on average, can roll over when the are 5.5 months, stand at about 8-9 months, and walk by about 15 months. However, any individual may be quicker or slower in development.
平均而言，嬰兒在 5.5 個月大時可以翻身，大約 8-9 個月大時可以站立，大約 15 個月大時可以走路。但是，任何人的發展都可能更快或更慢。
Attachment & Parenting (Style)
依戀與育兒（風格）
Konrad Lorenz established that some infant animals become attached to individuals or even objects they see during a critical period after birth.
康拉德·洛倫茲（Konrad Lorenz）確定，一些嬰兒動物在出生後的關鍵時期會依附於他們看到的個體甚至物體。
Imprinting is when a newborn creature bonds to the type of animals it meets at birth and begins to model its behavior after them.
印記是指新生生物與出生時遇到的動物類型結合併開始模仿它們的行為。
Harry Harlow raised baby monkeys with two artificial wire frame figures made to resemble mother monkeys.
Harry Harlow 用兩個模仿母猴的人造線框人物養育了小猴子。
One mother figure was fitted with a bottle the infant could eat from, and the other was wrapped in a soft material.
一個母親身上裝有一個嬰兒可以吃的瓶子，另一個則用柔軟的材料包裹著。
Harlow found that infant monkeys, when frightened, preferred the soft mother figure even over the figure that they fed from.
哈洛發現，幼猴在受到驚嚇時，更喜歡柔軟的母親形象，甚至超過了它們餵食的形象。
Harlow's studies demonstrate the importance of physical comfort in the formation of attachment with parents.
Harlow 的研究證明了身體舒適對與父母形成依戀關係的重要性。
Harlow also noticed that monkeys raised by wire mothers became more stressed and frightened than monkeys raised with real mothers when put into new situations.
哈洛還注意到，由鐵絲媽媽撫養的猴子在進入新環境時會比由真正的媽媽撫養的猴子更加緊張和害怕。
Mary Ainsworth: She put children into novel situations and observed their behavior when the parents left. She then categorized each child’s reaction.
Mary Ainsworth：她將孩子們置於新奇的情境中，並在父母離開時觀察他們的行為。然後她對每個孩子的反應進行分類。
She describes three attachment styles: Secure attachment, Avoidant attachment, Anxious/Ambivalent.
她描述了三種依戀風格：安全依戀、迴避依戀、焦慮/矛盾。
Secure attachment (66 percent of population): Child confidently explores the novel environment while the parents are present, is distressed when they leave, and goes to the parents when they return.
安全依戀（66% 的人口）：當父母在場時，孩子自信地探索新環境，離開時感到痛苦，並在父母回來時去找父母。
Avoidant attachment (21 percent of the population): Child may resist being held by the parents and will explore the novel environment. He or she does not go to the parents for comfort when they return after the absence.
迴避型依戀（占人口的 21%）：孩子可能會抗拒被父母抱起，並會探索新的環境。當他們離開後返回時，他或她不會去找父母尋求安慰。
Anxious/ambivalent attachment (12 percent of population): Child has ambivalent reactions to their parents. They may show extreme stress when the parents leave, but resist being comforted by them when they return.
焦慮/矛盾的依戀（占人口的 12%）：孩子對父母有矛盾的反應。當父母離開時，他們可能會表現出極大的壓力，但當他們回來時，他們會拒絕接受他們的安慰。
Disorganized (not in Barron’s book): The child has an erratic relationship with the caretaker and with older adults.
雜亂無章（巴倫的書中沒有）：孩子與看護人和老年人的關係不穩定。
This attachment style is more common is severe cases of neglect or abuse.
這種依戀風格更常見的是嚴重的忽視或虐待情況。
Diana Baumrind: She researched parent-child interactions and described three overall categories of parenting styles: Permissive parenting, Authoritarian parenting, Authoritative parenting.
戴安娜·鮑姆林德（Diana Baumrind）：她研究了親子互動，並描述了三種總體的養育方式：寬容養育、威權養育、權威養育。
Permissive: Parents do not set clear guidelines for children. The rules that do exist in the family are constantly changed or are not enforced.
放任：父母沒有為孩子制定明確的指導方針。家庭中確實存在的規則不斷改變或不執行。
Authoritarian: Parents set strict standards for behavior and apply punishments for violations of the rules. Punishment for undesired behaviour is more often used than reinforcement for desired behavior.
威權主義：父母為行為制定嚴格的標準，並對違反規則的行為進行懲罰。對不良行為的懲罰比對期望行為的強化更常用。
Authoritative: Parents have set, consistent standards for behavior and the standards are reasonable and explained. Authoritative parents praise as often as they punish. Explanations are encouraged in an authoritative house, and the rules are reasonable and consistent.
權威：父母已經制定了一致的行為標準，並且標準是合理和解釋的。權威的父母經常表揚和懲罰。鼓勵權威機構解釋，規則合理一致。
Other findings of Diana Baumrind's research:
戴安娜鮑姆林德研究的其他發現：
Children from authoritative homes are more socially capable and perform better than the academic average.
來自權威家庭的孩子比學術平均水平更具社交能力，表現更好。
Children of permissive parents are more likely to have emotional control problems and are more dependent.
寬容父母的孩子更容易出現情緒控制問題，並且更依賴他人。
Authoritarian parents' children are more likely to distrust others and be withdrawn from peers.
專制父母的孩子更有可能不信任他人並遠離同齡人。
Do we develop continually, at a steady rate from birth to death or is our development discontinuous (discontinuous meaning development starts and stops and may cease completely).
我們是從出生到死亡以穩定的速度持續發展還是我們的發展是不連續的（不連續意味著發展開始和停止並可能完全停止）。
Stage Theories of Development: Continuity vs. Discontinuity
發展階段論：連續性與不連續性
Stage Theories: Lev Vygotsky
舞台理論：列夫·維果茨基
Lev Vygotsky's concept of zone of proximal development is the range of tasks a child can perform independently and those tasks that the child needs assistance with.
列夫·維果茨基的最近發展區概念是兒童可以獨立完成的任務範圍以及兒童需要幫助的任務範圍。
Actual development is the range of tasks the child can perform now, and potential development is the ability the child could attain.
實際發展是孩子現在可以完成的任務範圍，潛在發展是孩子可以達到的能力。
Teachers/parents can provide 「scaffolds」 for students to help them accomplish tasks at the upper end of their 『zone of proximal development』, encouraging further independence and cognitive development.
教師/家長可以為學生提供「腳手架」，幫助他們完成「最近發展區」上端的任務，鼓勵他們進一步獨立和認知發展。
Stage Theories: Sigmund Freud
舞台理論：西格蒙德弗洛伊德
Developed Psychosexual stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
發展的性心理階段：口腔、肛門、陰莖、潛伏期和生殖器。
Each one of these stages has a conflict we must resolve.
這些階段中的每一個都有我們必須解決的衝突。
If we fail to resolve a significant conflict during one of these stages, Freud said we could become fixated in the stage, meaning we might remain preoccupied with the behaviors associated with that stage.
如果我們無法在其中一個階段解決重大衝突，弗洛伊德說我們可能會在這個階段變得固執，這意味著我們可能會全神貫注於與該階段相關的行為。
Oral Stage (0 to 1 year): In this stage, infants seek pleasure through their mouths. They tend to put everything they can grab into their mouths. Freud thought that people fixated at this stage might overeat, bite their nails, smoke, and have a childlike dependence on things.
口腔階段（0 至 1 歲）：在這個階段，嬰兒通過嘴巴尋求快樂。他們傾向於把所有能抓到的東西都放進嘴裡。弗洛伊德認為，處於這個階段的人可能會暴飲暴食、咬指甲、抽菸，對事物產生孩子般的依賴。
Anal stage (1-3 years): This stage takes place during toilet training. If conflict around toilet training arises, a person might fixate and be overly controlling and orderly (retentive) or out of control and messy (expulsive).
肛門階段（1-3 歲）：這個階段發生在如廁訓練期間。如果出現如廁訓練方面的衝突，一個人可能會固執己見，過度控制和秩序井然（固執）或失控和凌亂（排斥）。
Phallic stage (3-5 years): During this stage, the child realizes their gender and this causes conflict in the family. Freud described the process boys go though as the Oedipus complex: A time when a boy resents his father’s relationship with his mother. The process for girls is called the Electra complex: This is when a girl resents her mother's relationship with her father. Not resolving this gender conflict leads to gender confusion and sexual deviancy.
陰莖階段（3-5 歲）：在這個階段，孩子意識到自己的性別，這會導致家庭衝突。弗洛伊德將男孩經歷的過程描述為俄狄浦斯情結：一個男孩怨恨父親與母親的關係的時期。女孩的過程被稱為伊萊克特拉情結：這是一個女孩憎恨母親與父親的關係的時候。不解決這種性別衝突會導致性別混亂和性偏差。
Latency stage (5-6 years): Freud thought children go through a short latency stage, or period of calm, and between the ages of six and puberty experience low psychosexual anxiety.
潛伏期（5-6 歲）：弗洛伊德認為兒童會經歷一個短暫的潛伏期或平靜期，並且在 6 歲至青春期之間經歷較低的性心理焦慮。
Genital stage (puberty to adulthood): A child enters the genital stage where they remain for the rest of their lives. The focus of sexual pleasure is the genitals, and the fixation in this stage is what Freud considers normal: A long-lasting heterosexual relationship.
生殖器階段（青春期到成年）：孩子進入生殖器階段，他們將在此度過餘生。性快感的焦點是生殖器，而這個階段的固著是弗洛伊德認為正常的：一段長久的異性戀關係。
Stage Theories: Erik Erikson
舞台理論：埃里克·埃里克森
Erikson is labelled a neo-Freudian because he adapted Freud's theories to fit his own thoughts and observations.
埃里克森被貼上了新弗洛伊德主義者的標籤，因為他改編了弗洛伊德的理論以適應他自己的思想和觀察。
He adapted Freud's ideas and created the Psychosocial Stage Theory.
他採納了弗洛伊德的思想並創造了心理社會階段理論。
Infancy (birth to 18 months): Child develops sense of trust when caregivers provide reliable care; a lack of care leads to mistrust.
嬰兒期（出生至 18 個月）：當看護者提供可靠的護理時，孩子會產生信任感；缺乏照顧會導致不信任。
Early childhood (2-3 years): Child needs to develop personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence; success means a feeling of autonomy, failure means feelings of shame and doubt.
幼兒期（2-3 歲）：孩子需要培養對身體技能的個人控制和獨立感；成功意味著自主的感覺，失敗意味著羞恥和懷疑的感覺。
Preschool (3-5 years): Child needs to assert control and power over environment; success leads to a sense of purpose; children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in guilt.
學前班（3-5歲）：孩子需要對環境進行控制和控制；成功帶來目標感；試圖施加過多權力的孩子會遭到反對，從而導致內疚。
School age (6-11years): Child needs to cope with new social and academic demands; success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
學齡（6-11歲）：孩子需要應對新的社會和學業需求；成功導致能力感，而失敗導致自卑感。
Adolescence (12-18 years): Teen needs to develop a sense of self and personal identity; success leads to an ability to stay true to oneself; failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
青春期（12-18 歲）：青少年需要培養自我意識和個人認同感；成功帶來忠於自己的能力；失敗會導致角色混亂和自我意識薄弱。
Young adulthood (19-40 years): Young adult needs to form intimate, loving relationships with other people; success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
青壯年（19-40 歲）：青壯年需要與他人建立親密、充滿愛的關係；成功導致牢固的關係，而失敗導致孤獨和孤立。
Middle adulthood (40-65 years): Adult needs to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often through children or creating lasting positive change through career/work; success leads to feelings of usefulness, failure results in shallow involvement and feelings of stagnation.
中年（40-65 歲）：成年人需要創造或培養比他們更長壽的東西，通常是通過孩子或通過職業/工作創造持久的積極變化；成功導致有用的感覺，失敗導致膚淺的參與和停滯的感覺。
Maturity (65-death): Older adult needs to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment; success means feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
成熟（65-死亡）：老年人需要回顧生活並感到滿足感；成功意味著智慧的感覺，而失敗則導致遺憾、痛苦和絕望。
Stage Theories: Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development
階段理論：讓·皮亞傑與認知發展
Jean Piaget was working alongside Alfred Binet, the creator of the IQ test, when he began developing his own theories on cognitive development.
當讓·皮亞傑開始發展自己的認知發展理論時，他與智商測試的創造者阿爾弗雷德·比奈一起工作。
Schemata: A schemata or schema is a cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information. For example, a young child may first develop a schema for a horse. She knows that a horse is large, has hair, four legs, and a tail.
圖式：圖式或圖式是幫助組織和解釋信息的認知框架。例如，一個年幼的孩子可能首先為一匹馬開發一個圖式。她知道馬很大，有毛，有四條腿，還有一條尾巴。
Assimilation: The ability to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge.
同化：將新知識融入現有知識的能力。
For example, a two year old’s schema of a tree is 「green and big with bark.」 Over time the child adds information: some trees lose their leaves, some trees have red leaves, etc.. More information is added to the schema for tree as more experience and information are gained.
例如，一個兩歲的樹的圖式是「又綠又大，有樹皮」。隨著時間的推移，孩子會添加信息：一些樹失去葉子，一些樹有紅葉等。隨著獲得更多經驗和信息，更多信息被添加到樹的模式中。
Accommodation: When new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas.
適應：當新信息或經驗導致您修改現有模式時。
For example, a child develops a schema for a cat, but mistakenly calls a furry, four-legged animal with ears a cat when it is a dog.
例如，一個孩子形成了一隻貓的圖式，但當它是一隻狗時，卻錯誤地將一隻毛茸茸的、有耳朵的四足動物稱為貓。
Criticisms of Piaget
皮亞傑的批評
Many children go through the stages faster and enter them earlier than Piaget theorized.
許多孩子比皮亞傑的理論更快地經歷和進入這些階段。
Some believe his tests relied too heavily on language, biasing the results for older children.
一些人認為他的測試過於依賴語言，結果偏向於年齡較大的孩子。
An alternative to Piaget's theory
皮亞傑理論的替代方案
Information processing model states that our abilities to memorize, interpret, and perceive gradually develops as we age, rather than occurs in distinct stages; the process is continuous.
信息處理模型指出，我們的記憶、解釋和感知能力隨著年齡的增長而逐漸發展，而不是發生在不同的階段； 這個過程是連續的。
Theory of mind is a cognitive ability that develops in children around the age of four.
心智理論是一種認知能力，在四歲左右的兒童中發展。
TOM is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge, etc.—to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.
TOM（心智理論）是將心理狀態（信念、意圖、願望、情感、知識等）歸因於自己和他人的能力，並能夠理解他人有與自己不同的信念、願望、意圖和觀點。
Psychologists use the "false belief task" to test the TOM.
心理學家使用「錯誤信念任務」來測試 TOM。
When does our sense of right and wrong develop?
我們的是非感是什麼時候產生的？
Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
勞倫斯科爾伯格的道德發展階段
Kohlberg’s Stages: Pre-conventional, Conventional, Post-conventional.
科爾伯格的階段：前常規、常規、後常規。
Pre-conventional: Most common in children. Individuals focus on direct consequences of actions for themselves. An action is perceived as wrong because the person is punished or good because the person is rewarded.
前常規：最常見於兒童。個人關注行為對自己的直接後果。一個行為被認為是錯誤的，因為這個人受到了懲罰，或者被認為是好的，因為這個人得到了獎勵。
Examples of pre-conventional
前常規的例子
Parent: Can you clean your room?
家長：你能打掃你的房間嗎？
Child: Not now.
孩子：現在不行。
Parent: I will buy you ice cream at the mall.
家長：我去商場給你買冰淇淋。
Child: Okay!
孩子：好的！
Child: Cleaning my room is good because I get an ice cream.
孩子：打掃房間很好，因為我有冰淇淋。
Child2: I better put up my hand and ask to go to the washroom, if I don’t and I just leave, I might be in trouble!
孩子2：我最好（向老師）舉手要求去洗手間，不然我不報告就走了，我可能就會有麻煩了！
Conventional: Most common in adolescents. An action is considered right or wrong by comparing it to society’s views and expectations.
常規：最常見於青少年。通過將行為與社會的觀點和期望進行比較來判斷行為是對還是錯。
Someone in the conventional stage might want to avoid littering, even if they know they will not get caught, because they've been taught that littering is wrong.
處於常規階段的人可能希望避免亂扔垃圾，即使他們知道自己不會被抓住，因為他們被教導亂扔垃圾是錯誤的。
Post-conventional is a realization that individuals are separate from society, and the individual’s own perspective may override society’s expectation. Principles may be basic human rights, liberty, justice, and general welfare of the planet, animals, and humans.
後傳統是認識到個人與社會是分離的，個人自己的觀點可能會凌駕於社會的期望之上。原則可能是地球、動物和人類的基本人權、自由、正義和普遍福利。
The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. For example, protecting a life is more important than upholding laws regarding theft.
該人將準備採取行動捍衛這些原則，即使這意味著在此過程中與社會其他人背道而馳，並且必須承擔不贊成和/或監禁的後果。例如，保護生命比維護有關盜竊的法律更重要。
Carol Gilligan challenged Kohlberg that boys and girls develop differently.
Carol Gilligan挑戰Kohlberg男孩和女孩的發展方式不同。
According to Gilligan's research, boys have a more absolute view of what is moral while girls pay more attention to the situation.
根據Gilligan的研究，男孩對什麼是道德有更絕對的看法，而女孩則更關注情況。
Boys might have moral rules that apply in every context, while girls might want to know more about the situation and the people involved.
男孩可能有適用於各種情況的道德規則，而女孩可能想更多地了解情況和所涉及的人。
But research does not support Gilligan's claims about gender differences in moral development.
但研究並不支持Gilligan關於道德發展中的性別差異的說法。
GENDER: Identifying with some socially defined norm, such as male or female. Gender does not usually refer to biological or physiological characteristics normally associated with 『male’ or 『female’.
性別：認同一些社會定義的規範，例如男性或女性。性別通常不是指通常與「男性」或「女性」相關的生物學或生理特徵。
Children develop gender identity by age two or three. Developing sex-related roles, gender typing, occurs from ages two to seven.
兒童在兩三歲時就形成了性別認同。發展與性別相關的角色，性別類型，發生在 2 到 7 歲。
Children begin to learn that gender is fixed, gender constancy, at roughly the same age.
孩子們在大致相同的年齡開始學習性別是固定的，性別恆定性。
Gender Development
性別發展
Gender differences vary widely between cultures. A behavior considered feminine in one culture, such as holding hands with a friend, might be considered gender neutral in another culture.
不同文化之間的性別差異差異很大。在一種文化中被認為是女性化的行為，例如與朋友牽手，在另一種文化中可能被認為是性別中立的。
Gender and Biology
性別與生物學
Biopsychological theories focus on the nature element of gender development (DNA, genes, proteins, neurotransmitters, hormones, brains, genitals).
生物心理學理論關注性別發展的自然因素（DNA、基因、蛋白質、神經遞質、激素、大腦、生殖器）。
One of the differences is that women, on average, have larger corpus callosum (this is part of the brain that connects each hemisphere).
不同之處之一是女性平均擁有更大的胼胝體（這是連接每個半球的大腦的一部分）。
This difference may affect how the right and left hemispheres communicate and coordinate tasks, and therefore some of the differences between male and female behavior.
這種差異可能會影響左右半球交流和協調任務的方式，從而影響男性和女性行為之間的一些差異。
Freud views gender development as a competition. Young boys, unconsciously compete with their fathers' for their mothers' love. Girls compete with their mothers' for their fathers' love
弗洛伊德將性別發展視為一種競爭。年輕的男孩，不知不覺地與父親爭奪母親的愛。女生為了爸爸的愛和媽媽競爭
Proper gender, development according to Freud, occurs when a child realizes that he or she cannot hope to beat their same-sex parent at this competition, and identifies with that sex.
根據弗洛伊德的說法，正確的性別發展發生在孩子意識到他或她無法希望在這場比賽中擊敗他們的同性父母並認同該性別時。
Social and cognitive psychologists concentrate on the effects of society and our own thoughts about gender have on our development
社會和認知心理學家專注於社會的影響以及我們自己對性別的看法對我們的發展的影響
For example, a social psychologist might observe that boys are more often encouraged in rough play than girls.
例如，一位社會心理學家可能會觀察到男孩比女孩更容易在粗魯的遊戲中受到鼓勵。
Cognitive psychologists focus on our internal interpretations that we make about the gender message we get from our environment when we’'re developing.
認知心理學家專注於我們對我們在發展過程中從環境中獲得的性別信息所做的內部解釋。
Gender-schema theory explains that we internalize messages about gender into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave.
性別模式理論解釋說，我們將關於性別的信息內化為關於每個性別應該如何表現的認知規則。
If a girl sees that her little brother is encouraged to wrestle with their father, she creates a rule governing how boys should play.
如果一個女孩看到她的弟弟被鼓勵與他們的父親摔跤，她就會制定一條規則來管理男孩應該如何玩耍。
心理学卷·其之拾·人格之論
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人格是個體所具有的獨特的態度、行為和情感的集合。
Some examples of personality theories that do not neatly fit into any other school of thought:
一些與其他任何學派都不完全吻合的人格理論的例子：
Type A and type B
A型和B型
Individuals with a type A personality tend to feel a sense of time pressure and are easily angered. They are also competitive and ambitious.
A型人格的人容易感到時間壓力，容易生氣。他們也很有競爭力和雄心勃勃。
Individuals with a type B personality tend to be more relaxed and easy going.
B型人格的人往往更輕鬆、隨和。
Psychoanalytic Theory
精神分析理論
Psychoanalytic theory posits that personality is determined by early childhood experiences, and remains mostly the same throughout the life.
精神分析理論認為，人格是由兒童早期的經歷決定的，並且在一生中基本保持不變。'
Dominant themes in psychoanalytic theory are sex, death, childhood, and the unconscious mind.
精神分析理論的主要主題是性、死亡、童年和潛意識。
Our conscious mind is all the current thoughts in your mind.
我們有意識的頭腦是你頭腦中所有當前的想法。
Preconscious is just below consciousness; it’s what you’re not thinking about, but could be thinking about if you focused on it.
前意識就在意識之下；這是您沒有考慮的，但如果您專注於它，則可能會考慮。
Freud believed that a lot of people's behavior is controlled by a region of the mind he called the unconscious.
弗洛伊德認為，很多人的行為是由他稱之為無意識的大腦區域控制的。
We do not have access to the thoughts in our unconscious.
我們無法接觸到我們潛意識中的思想。
Freud said that we spend a tremendous amount of energy trying to keep threatening thoughts in our unconscious mind.
弗洛伊德說，我們花費了大量的精力試圖在我們的潛意識中保留威脅性的想法。
Freud posited that there were two types of instincts: Eros, the life instinct, which is the desire for sex, and Thanatos, the death instinct, which is seen as aggression.
弗洛伊德假設有兩種類型的本能：工口，生命本能，即對性的渴望，以及死亡本能，死亡本能，被視為侵略。
The Libido is the energy that directs the life instinct.
性慾是指導生命本能的能量。
Freud also posited the ego, superego, and ID.
弗洛伊德還提出了自我、超我和本我。
The ID is a part of the unconscious mind.
ID是潛意識的一部分。
The ID pursues immediate gratification. The ID exists from birth. It remains the same throughout a persons life and does not change with time or experience. The ID is not affected by reality, logic, or experience.
ID追求即時滿足。 ID從出生就存在。它在一個人的一生中保持不變，不會隨著時間或經驗而改變。 ID不受現實、邏輯或經驗的影響。
自我根據現實原則運作，經常妥協或推遲滿足以避免社會的負面後果。
The ego operates according to the reality principle, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. Ego develops within 2-3 years of age.
自我在決定如何表現時會考慮社會現實和規範、禮儀和規則。自我在 2-3 歲時發育。
The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral about right and wrong taught by parents and society. Emerges around age 3-5.
超我是人格的一個方面，它擁有我們所有關於父母和社會教導的對與錯的內在道德。出現在 3-5 歲左右。
Example: As you cram for the AP psych exam, the ID tells you to go to sleep or go to the party (immediate gratification); the superego tells you to study because it is the right thing to do; the ego negotiates with both the ID and the superego, saying you will study for two hours, drop by the party, and then go to sleep.
示例：當你為 AP 心理考試做準備時，身份證告訴你去睡覺或去參加派對（立即滿足）； 超我告訴你學習，因為這是正確的事； 自我與身份和超我協商，說你要學習兩個小時，順便去參加聚會，然後去睡覺。
There is little empirical support for a lot of Freud's ideas. Psychoanalytic theory is able to interpret both positive and negative reactions as support of the theory.
弗洛伊德的許多觀點幾乎沒有經驗支持。 精神分析理論能夠將積極和消極的反應解釋為該理論的支持。
For example, if someone denied psychoanalytic theory, saying it was nonsense, a psychoanalyst may say that person is undergoing denial because they cannot deal with the truth.
例如，如果有人否認精神分析理論，說這是胡說八道，精神分析學家可能會說這個人正在接受否認，因為他們無法處理真相。
精神分析的批評(Criticisms of Psychoanalysis)
Freud was also criticized for overestimating the importance of early childhood and sex in shaping behavior.
弗洛伊德還被批評高估了幼兒期和性在塑造行為方面的重要性。
Contemporary research contradicts the idea that personality is essentially set by the age of five.
當代研究與人格本質上由五歲確定的觀點相矛盾。
Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow criticized Freud's assumption that men were superior to women.
凱倫霍尼和南希喬多羅批評弗洛伊德關於男性優於女性的假設。
Horney and Chodorow suggested that if women were envious of men, it was more likely to be all the advantages men enjoyed in society.
霍尼和喬多羅認為，如果女性嫉妒男性，則更有可能是男性在社會中享有的所有優勢。
Posited that men may suffer from womb envy; jealously of women's reproductive capabilities.
假設男人可能患有子宮嫉妒；嫉妒女性的生殖能力。
Freud's impact on culture still exists today, though his psychological theory does not hold up to empirical evidence.
弗洛伊德對文化的影響今天仍然存在，儘管他的心理學理論不支持經驗證據。
Freud's terms like ego, unconscious, and denial are still widely used in everyday speech.
弗洛伊德的自我、無意識和否認等術語仍然廣泛用於日常言語中。
榮格理論(Jungian Theory)
Neo-Freudian Theories/Psychodynamic theory(Carl Jung & Alfred Adler)
新弗洛伊德理論/心理動力學理論（Carl Jung & Alfred Adler）
Jung proposed that the unconscious consists of two different parts: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.
榮格提出無意識由兩個不同的部分組成：個人無意識和集體無意識。
The personal unconscious, contained complexes, was the accumulation of experiences from a person's lifetime that could not be consciously recalled. It is similar to Freud's view of the unconscious.
包含情結的個人無意識是一個人一生中無法有意識地回憶的經驗的積累。這與弗洛伊德的無意識觀點相似。
A complex is a personal unconscious, core pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized around a common theme.
情結是圍繞一個共同主題組織起來的個人無意識的、核心的情感、記憶、感知和願望模式。
According to Jung's personality theory, complexes are building blocks of the psyche and the source of all human emotions.
根據榮格的人格理論，情結是心靈的基石，也是人類所有情感的源泉。
The collective unconscious "does not develop individually but is inherited. It consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents."
集體無意識「不是單獨發展的，而是遺傳的。它由預先存在的形式、原型組成，它們只能成為次要的意識，並為某些心理內容賦予明確的形式。」
The collective unconscious is passed down through the species and explains certain similarities we see between cultures.
集體無意識通過物種傳承下來，並解釋了我們在文化之間看到的某些相似之處。
The collective unconscious contains archetypes that Jung defined as universal concepts we all share as part of the human species.
集體無意識包含了榮格定義為我們作為人類物種的一部分共享的普遍概念的原型。
The shadow is an archetype that represents the dark side of personality.
陰影是代表人格黑暗面的原型。
The persona is people's creation of a public image.
人格是人們對公眾形象的創造。
There are a lot of other archetypes in Jungian theory: Creator, Caregiver, Ruler, Jester, Hero, Lover, Outlaw, Magician, Explorer, etc.
榮格理論中還有很多其他原型：創造者、看護者、統治者、小丑、英雄、情人、亡命之徒、魔術師、探險家等。
Each has a core desire. For example, the Hero's core desire is to prove one's worth through courageous and difficult action.
每個人都有一個核心願望。例如，英雄的核心願望是通過勇敢和艱難的行動來證明自己的價值。
阿德勒理論(Adlerian Theory)
Adler downplays the unconscious more than Freud, and believes people are motivated by the fear of failure, which he termed inferiority.
阿德勒比弗洛伊德更輕視無意識，並相信人們的動機是害怕失敗，他稱之為自卑。
They are also motivated by the desire to achieve: superiority.
他們也受到實現的願望的驅使：優越感。
Adler also emphasizes the importance of birth order in shaping personality.
阿德勒還強調了出生順序在塑造人格方面的重要性。
Adler argued that birth order can leave an impression on an individual's style of life, which is one's habitual way of dealing with the tasks of friendship, love, and work.
阿德勒認為，出生順序可以給個人的生活方式留下印象，這是一個人處理友誼、愛情和工作任務的習慣方式。
Firstborns are dethroned when a second child comes along, and this loss of perceived privilege and primacy may have a lasting influence on them. Middle children may feel ignored or overlooked. Younger and only children may be pampered and spoiled, which was suggested to affect their later personalities.
當第二個孩子出現時，長子就會被廢黜，這種特權和首要地位的喪失可能會對他們產生持久的影響。中間的孩子可能會感到被忽視或被忽視。年幼的獨生子女可能會被寵壞，這被認為會影響他們後來的性格。
Trait theories posit that we can describe people's personalities by identifying general traits.
特質理論假設我們可以通過識別一般特質來描述人們的個性。
Nomothetic approach: Some trait theorists believe that the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people's personalities.
Nomothetic 方法：一些特質理論家認為，相同的基本特質集可用於描述所有人的個性。
Hans Eyesnck believed that by classifying all people along an introversion-extraversion scale and a stable-unstable scale, we could describe their personality entirely.
Hans Eyesnck 認為，通過內向-外向和穩定-不穩定的量表對所有人進行分類，我們可以完整地描述他們的個性。
Raymond Cattell developed the 16 personality factor test to measure what he believed were the 16 basic traits present in all people.
Raymond Cattell 開發了 16 種人格因素測試來衡量他認為所有人都存在的 16 種基本特徵。
outgoing, more intelegent, emotionally stable, dominant, happy-go-lucky, conscientious, venturesome, sensitive, suspicious, imaginative, shrewd, apprehensive, experimenting, self-sufficient, controlled, tensed.
外向的，更聰明的，情緒穩定的，占主導地位的，隨遇而安的，認真的，冒險的，敏感的，多疑的，富有想像力的，精明的，憂慮的，實驗的，自給自足的，控制的，緊張的。
正確的，直接的，中肯的，雅致的，客觀的，完整的，立體的，全面的，辯證的，形上學的，雅俗共賞的，一針見血的，直擊要害的。
Paul Costa & Robert McCrae proposed that personality can be described using the Big Five Personality Traits: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness, and Emotional Stability (Neuroticism).
Paul Costa 和 Robert McCrae 提出可以使用大五人格特質來描述人格：外向性、隨和性、責任心、開放性和情緒穩定性（神經質）。
Idiographic theories assert that using the same set of terms to classify all people is impossible.
個性化理論斷言，使用同一組術語對所有人進行分類是不可能的。
Idiographic:Focus on the individual and recognition of uniqueness, Private, subjective, and conscious experiences, Investigations gain written information unique to individual under study
個性化：關注個體和對獨特性的認識，私人的、主觀的和有意識的體驗，調查獲得所研究個體獨有的書面信息
Nomothetic:Attempts to establish laws and generalizations, Objective knowledge through scientific method, Investigations gain numerical data or data that can be categorized.
Nomothetic：試圖建立規律和概括，通過科學方法獲得客觀知識，調查獲得數字數據或可以分類的數據。
Gordon Allport suggested that to understand and predict behaviour, you need to look at a person's individual traits.
Gordon Allport 建議，要了解和預測行為，您需要查看一個人的個人特徵。
Cardinal Trait: A trait that defines and dominates one’s personality and behaviour.
基本特質：定義和支配一個人的個性和行為的特質。
Central Traits: Refer to general characteristics that form the foundation of someone. These are characteristics by which you might describe a person. They might be honest, hard-working, and punctual.
中心特徵：指構成某人基礎的一般特徵。這些是您可以用來描述一個人的特徵。他們可能誠實、勤奮、守時。
Secondary Traits: These are traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences, and usually only appear in certain situations or under specific circumstances (e.g., panic attack during a public speech or anger while waiting in line).
次要特徵：這些特徵有時與態度或偏好有關，通常僅在某些情況或特定情況下出現（例如，公開演講時的恐慌發作或排隊等候時的憤怒）。
A person's cardinal trait could be sociability, because they're always socializing.
一個人的主要特徵可以是社交能力，因為他們總是在社交。
人格生物學理論Biological Theories of Personality
History: Hippocrates, born 460 BCE, believed that personality was determined by the relative levels of four humors (fluids) in the body.
歷史：出生於公元前 460 年的希波克拉底認為，人格是由體內四種體液（體液）的相對水平決定的。
The humors were blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.
體液是血、黃膽汁、黑膽汁和痰。
Someone was unhealthy when there was an imbalance of humors.
當體液不平衡時，人是不健康的。
Present: 「『』」Genes, neurotransmitters, hormones, and other physiological characteristics『』『』 determine how a person behaves.
現在的研究：基因、神經遞質、激素和其他生理特徵決定了一個人的行為方式。
Heritability: a statistic that estimates the degree of genetic variation.
遺傳力：估計遺傳變異程度的統計量。
Things like height, eye colour, skin colour, and hair colour are related to specific genes. These traits have a high heritability.
身高、眼睛顏色、膚色和頭髮顏色等都與特定基因有關。這些性狀具有很高的遺傳力。
An estimate for the heritability of intelligence is between 50-70%
智力的遺傳力估計在 50-70% 之間
Evidence suggests that genes are involved in a person’s temperament.
有證據表明，基因與一個人的氣質有關。
William Sheldon's Somatotype Theory: Sheldon identified three different body types and argued that certain personality traits were associated with each of the body types.
威廉謝爾頓的體型理論：謝爾頓確定了三種不同的體型，並認為某些人格特徵與每種體型有關。
Endomorph: Relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful
內胚型：放鬆、善於交際、寬容、喜歡舒適、平和
Mesomorph: Active, assertive, vigorous, combative
中胚層：積極、自信、充滿活力、好鬥
Ectomorph: Quiet, fragile, restrained, non-assertive, sensitive
外胚層：安靜、脆弱、克制、不自信、敏感
行為理論(Behavioral Theories)
Behaviorists argue that behavior is personality and that the way most people think of the term personality is meaningless.
行為主義者認為，行為就是人格，大多數人對人格一詞的看法是沒有意義的。
'Personality' is determined by the environment.
「個性」是由環境決定的。
The reinforcement contingencies to which one is exposed creates one's 'personality'.
一個人所暴露的強化偶然性創造了一個人的「個性」。
By changing a person’s environment, a behaviorist believes they can alter 'personality'.
通過改變一個人的環境，行為主義者相信他們可以改變「個性」。
Radical behaviorists, like B.F. Skinner, are criticized for failing to recognise the importance of cognition (thinking) in personality.
激進的行為主義者，如 B.F. Skinner，因未能認識到認知（思維）在人格中的重要性而受到批評。
社會認知理論(Social Cognitive Theories)
Albert Bandura (Bobo Doll Experiment) suggested that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person's behavior.
阿爾伯特班杜拉（波波娃娃實驗）認為，人格是由人（特徵）、環境和人的行為之間的相互作用創造的。
His model is based on the idea of triadic reciprocality known as reciprocal determinism.
他的模型基於被稱為互惠決定論的三元互惠思想。
'互惠決定論示例(Reciprocal Determinism Example:')
「Taylor is friendly (trait)」
「泰勒很友好（特質）」
1. Influences her behavior: She talks a lot
1. 影響她的行為：她話很多
2. Influences her environment: She is more likely to go to parties where she will talk a lot
2. 影響她的環境：她更有可能去參加她會說很多話的聚會
3.Her environment influences her behavior: the more she talks, the more friendly she thinks she is, and the more parties she goes to, the more she talks…
3.她的環境影響她的行為：她說的越多，她認為她越友好，她參加的聚會越多，她說的越多……
Bandura also posited that personality is affected by people's self-efficacy.
班杜拉還假設人格受到人們的自我效能感的影響。
Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in his or her innate ability to achieve goals.
自我效能感是個人對自己實現目標的天生能力的信念。
People with a high self-efficacy are optimistic about their ability to get things done while people with low self-efficacy feel powerless.
自我效能高的人對自己完成工作的能力持樂觀態度，而自我效能低的人則感到無能為力。
George Kelly proposed the personal-construct theory of personality.
喬治凱利提出了人格的個人建構理論。
Personal-construct theory argues that people, in their attempts to understand their world, develop their own, individual systems of personal constructs.
個人建構理論認為，人們在試圖理解他們的世界時，會發展他們自己的個人建構系統。
Such constructs consist of pairs of opposites such as fair-unfair, smart-dumb, and exciting dull.
這種結構由成對的對立面組成，例如公平不公平、聰明愚蠢和令人興奮的沉悶。
People then use these constructs to evaluate their worlds. Kelly believed that people's behavior is determined by how they interpret the world.
然後人們使用這些結構來評估他們的世界。凱利認為，人們的行為取決於他們對世界的解讀方式。
His theory is based on a fundamental postulate that states that people's behavior is influenced by their cognitions and that by knowing how people have behaved in the past, we can predict how they will act in the future.
他的理論基於一個基本假設，即人們的行為受他們的認知影響，通過了解人們過去的行為，我們可以預測他們未來的行為。
Julian Rotter: Locus of Control (LoC).
朱利安·羅特：控制點 (LoC)。
A person can be described as having either an internal locus of control or an external locus of control.
一個人可以被描述為具有內部控制點或外部控制點。
People with an internal locus of control feel as if they are responsible for what happens to them.
具有內部控制點的人感覺好像他們對發生在他們身上的事情負責。
People with an external locus of control generally believe that luck and other forces outside of their own control determine their destinies.
具有外部控制點的人通常認為運氣和其他不受自己控制的力量決定了他們的命運。
Positive outcomes have been associated with having an internal locus of control.
積極的結果與擁有內部控制點有關。
Compared with externals, internals tend to be healthier, more politically active, and do better in school.
與外在人相比，內在人往往更健康，政治上更活躍，在學校表現更好。
Humanistic theories of personality view people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through freewill.
人本主義人格理論認為人天生善良，能夠通過自由意志決定自己的命運。
Humanistic theories focus on the importance of a person's self-concept and self-esteem.
人文主義理論關注一個人的自我概念和自尊的重要性。
Self-concept is made up of one's ideas, self-knowledge, and the social self to form the self as whole.
自我概念是由一個人的想法、自我知識和社會自我構成的整體。
It includes the past, present, and future selves, where future selves (or possible selves) represent individuals' ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming.
它包括過去、現在和未來的自我，未來的自我（或可能的自我）代表個人對他們可能成為什麼、他們想成為什麼或他們害怕成為什麼的想法。
One's self-concept is related to their self-esteem.
一個人的自我概念與他們的自尊有關。
Self-esteem reflects an individual's overall subjective emotional evaluation of their own worth.
自尊反映了個人對自身價值的整體主觀情感評價。
It is the decision made by an individual as an attitude towards the self.
它是個人作為對自我的態度而做出的決定。
Abraham Maslow & The Hierarchy of Needs
亞伯拉罕馬斯洛與需求層次
Each individual's personality may be unique, but we all face the same set of needs.
每個人的個性可能是獨一無二的，但我們都面臨著相同的需求。
Self-actualization is reaching your full potential as a person.
自我實現正在發揮你作為一個人的全部潛力。
Assessment Tests help identify individual differences in personality.
評估測試有助於識別個性的個體差異。
Projective tests are often used by psychoanalysts.
投射測試經常被精神分析學家使用。
They involved asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli.
'他們要求人們解釋模稜兩可的刺激。「」
Rorschach inkblot tests involve showing people a series of inkbots
羅夏墨跡測試包括向人們展示一系列墨水機器人
墨水點點.jpg
Thematic Apperception Test is a projective psychological test.
主題統覺測試是一種投射性心理測試。
Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures of people, reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world.
該技術的支持者聲稱，受試者的反應，在他們對人物模稜兩可的照片的敘述中，揭示了他們潛在的動機、擔憂和他們看待社會世界的方式。
Psychoanalysts believe that people's interpretations reflect their unconscious thoughts.
精神分析學家認為，人們的解釋反映了他們無意識的想法。
In scoring projective tests, an analyst must take in the description the participant gives, but must watch how the person holds the card or picture, the way they turn it, and the way they focus on it.
在給投射測試打分時，分析師必須接受參與者給出的描述，但必須觀察這個人是如何拿著卡片或圖片的，他們轉動卡片的方式，以及他們專注於它的方式。
Many believe that projective tests are unreliable.
許多人認為投射測試是不可靠的。
Self-report Inventories are questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselves.
自我報告清單是要求人們提供有關自己的信息的問卷。
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-1/2/3/etc.)
明尼蘇達多相人格量表 (MMPI-1/2/3/etc.)
567 true/false questions.
567個對/錯問題。
18 years and older.
18 歲及以上。
Takes 60/90 minutes to complete.
需要 60/90 分鐘以完成。
10 clinical scales that assess dimensions of personality.
評估人格維度的 10 個臨床量表。
Has 9 validity scales to detect response styles.
有 9 個有效性量表來檢測響應風格。
Barnum Effect: People have he tendency to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality.
巴納姆效應：人們傾向於以模糊的、普通的個性描述來看待自己。
心理学卷·其之拾壹·測驗之差
| 心理學卷·其之拾壹 |
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你 的 智 商 在 幾 層 ？
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心理学卷·其之拾贰·變態之境
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異常心理學是對患有心理疾病的人的研究。
Abnormal psychology studies depression, substance abuse, learning difficulties, mental disorders, and more.
異常心理學研究抑鬱症、藥物濫用、學習困難、精神障礙等。
a) The behavior is maladaptive/disturbing to the individual.
a) 行為對個人不適應/令人不安。
b) The behavior is disturbing to others.
b) 該行為令他人不安。
c) The behavior is not shared by many members of society.
c) 許多社會成員不認同這種行為。
d) It is irrational; the behavior does not make sense to the average person.
d) 不合理；這種行為對普通人沒有意義。
Insanity is a legal term, not a psychological one.
精神錯亂是一個法律術語，而不是心理術語。
If one is found to be insane, the person cannot be held fully responsible for their actions.
如果發現某人精神錯亂，則該人不能對其行為承擔全部責任。
This may be because they had a psychological disorder which impaired their judgement.
這可能是因為他們有心理障礙，損害了他們的判斷力。
Psychologists use a book called the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders (DSM).
心理學家使用一本名為《精神疾病診斷和統計手冊》（DSM）的書。
It provides a way for psychologists to diagnose patients.
它為心理學家診斷病人提供了一種方法。
It is revised every so often, currently on its 5th edition.
它經常被修改，目前是第 5 版。
Disorders are reclassified every so often.
疾病經常被重新分類。
Homosexuality was reclassified in some previous edition.
在以前的一些版本中，同性戀被重新分類。
000-x63 Sexual deviation
000-x63 性偏差
This diagnosis is reserved for deviant sexuality which is not symptomatic of more extensive syndromes, such as schizophrenic and obsessional reactions.
這種診斷是為不正常的性行為保留的，這種性行為不是更廣泛的症候群的症狀，例如精神分裂症和強迫反應。
The term includes most of the casesformally classed as "Psychopathic personality with pathologic sexuality." The diagnosis will specify the type of pathologic behavior, such as homosexuality, transvestism, pedophilia, fetishism and sexual sadism (including rape, sexual assault, mutilation).
該術語包括大多數被正式歸類為「具有病態性行為的精神病態人格」的案例。診斷將指定病理行為的類型，例如同性戀、易裝癖、戀童癖、戀物癖和性虐待（包括強姦、性侵犯、肢解）。
Psychological School/Perspective+Etiology/Cause of the Disorder
心理學派/觀點+病因/疾病的原因
Psychology Analytic/dynamic: Internal, unconscious drives
心理學分析/動態：內在的、無意識的驅動力
Humanistic: Failure to strive to one's potential or being in touch with one's feelings
人文主義：未能發揮自己的潛力或與自己的感情保持聯繫
Behavioral: Reinforcement history, environment
行為：強化歷史、環境
Cognitive: Irrational, dysfunctional thoughts or ways of thinking
認知：非理性、功能失調的想法或思維方式
Biomedical/Neuroscience: Organic problems, biomedical imbalances, genetic predispositions
生物醫學/神經科學：器質性問題、生物醫學失衡、遺傳易感性
Phobia is an intense unwarranted fear of a situation or object.
恐懼症是對某種情況或物體的強烈無端恐懼。
Such as claustrophobia, fear of enclosed spaces, or arachnophobia, fear of spiders.
例如幽閉恐懼症，對封閉空間的恐懼，或蜘蛛恐懼症，對蜘蛛的恐懼。
Agoraphobia is a fear of open, public spaces. People with extreme agoraphobia may not venture outside their home.
廣場恐懼症是對開放的公共場所的恐懼。患有極端廣場恐懼症的人可能不會冒險走出家門。
Social anxiety disorder is a fear of a situation in which one could embarrass oneself in public such as when eating or walking.
社交焦慮症是一種害怕在公共場合（例如吃飯或走路時）讓自己難堪的情況。
Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD) is when someone experiences a constant, low-level anxiety.
廣泛性焦慮症 (GAD) 是指某人經歷持續的低水平焦慮。
Panic disorder is when someone suffers from acute episodes of intense anxiety without any justifiable cause.
恐慌症是指某人在沒有任何正當原因的情況下急性發作強烈的焦慮。
Psychoanalytic theorists see anxiety as the result of conflicts among the desires of the ID, ego, and superego.
精神分析理論家將焦慮視為本我、自我和超我的欲望之間衝突的結果。
Anxiety may arise when a woman wants to pursue her father (ID) while being restrained by the superego.
當一個女人想要追求她的父親（ID）同時受到超我的約束時，可能會出現焦慮。
Behaviorists assume all behaviors are learned and that phobias, like arachnophobia, arise out of reinforcement. Maybe you were bit by a spider, now you’re scared of spiders.
行為主義者假設所有行為都是後天習得的，恐懼症，如蜘蛛恐懼症，是由強化引起的。也許你被蜘蛛咬了，現在你害怕蜘蛛。
A cognitive theorist would say that anxiety results from dysfunctional ways of thinking; anxiety may result from an unrealistic expectation you have of yourself.
認知理論家會說焦慮是由於思維方式功能失調造成的。焦慮可能源於你對自己的不切實際的期望。
"I will get 100% on the AP psych exam" or "If I don't get 100%, my life will be ruined forever!"
「我將在 AP 心理考試中獲得 100%」或「如果我沒有獲得 100%，我的生活將永遠被毀掉！」
Somatoform disorders occur when a person 'manifests' psychological problems through a physiological symptom.
當一個人通過生理症狀「表現」出心理問題時，就會發生軀體形式障礙。
Somatoform disorder is an umbrella term for the conversion disorder.
軀體形式障礙是轉換障礙的總稱。
Conversion disorder: People report the existence of a severe physical problem such as paralysis or blindness, and will be unable to move their arms and legs.
轉換障礙：人們報告存在嚴重的身體問題，例如癱瘓或失明，並且無法移動他們的手臂和腿。
However no biological explanation is found by medical professionals.
然而，醫學專家沒有找到生物學解釋。
Hypochondriasis: Complaining frequently about physical problems for which doctors are unable to find a cause.
疑病症：經常抱怨醫生無法找到原因的身體問題。
An individual with hypochondriasis is known as a hypochondriac.
患有疑病症的個體被稱為疑病症患者。
Hypochondriacs become unduly alarmed about any physical or psychological symptoms they detect, no matter how minor the symptom may be, and are convinced that they or others have, or are about to be diagnosed with, a serious illness
疑病症患者對他們發現的任何身體或心理症狀過度警覺，無論症狀多麼輕微，並且確信他們或其他人患有或即將被診斷出患有嚴重疾病
Psychoanalysts would assert that somatic symptom disorders are merely outward manifestations of unconscious conflicts.
精神分析學家會斷言，軀體症狀障礙僅僅是無意識衝突的外在表現。
Behaviorists would say that the disorder is reinforced.
行為主義者會說這種疾病得到了加強。
Dissociative disorders involve a disruption in conscious processes.
解離性障礙涉及意識過程的中斷。
Dissociative amnesia is when a person cannot recall information or memories and no physiological basis from the disruption in memory can be identified.
解離性健忘症是指一個人無法回憶信息或記憶，並且無法識別記憶中斷的生理基礎。
Organic amnesia is when amnesia happens naturally; occurs with age.
有機失憶症是自然發生的失憶症；隨著年齡的增長而發生。
Dissociative fugue, formerly fugue state is a rare psychiatric disorder characterized by reversible amnesia for personal identity, including the memories, personality, and other identifying characteristics of individuality.
解離性神遊，以前的神遊狀態是一種罕見的精神疾病，其特徵是對個人身份的可逆性遺忘，包括記憶、人格和其他個性識別特徵。
The state can last days, months or longer.
該狀態可以持續數天、數月或更長時間。
Dissociative fugue usually involves unplanned travel or wandering, and is sometimes accompanied by the establishment of a new identity.
分離賦格通常涉及計畫外的旅行或流浪，有時還伴隨著新身份的建立。
Dissociative identity disorder: previously called multiple personality disorder, is when a person has several personalities rather than one integrated personality.
分離性身份障礙：以前稱為多重人格障礙，是指一個人具有多種人格而不是一種綜合人格。（@SystemAMWE）
Psychoanalytic theorists believe that dissociative disorders result when an extremely traumatic event has been so thoroughly repressed that a split in consciousness results.
精神分析理論家認為，當極度創傷性事件被如此徹底地壓制以致導致意識分裂時，就會產生分離障礙。
However, cases of dissociative disorders are rare outside the United States, and where the number increased dramatically in the last century.
然而，在美國以外，分離性障礙的病例很少見，而且在上個世紀，這一數字急劇增加。
Critics judge it as role-play.
評論家認為這是角色扮演。
Mood or affective disorder is characterized by extreme or inappropriate emotions.
情緒或情感障礙以極端或不恰當的情緒為特徵。
Major depressive disorder, also called unipolar depression, is the most common mood disorder.
重度抑鬱症，也稱為單相抑鬱症，是最常見的情緒障礙。
People remain depressed or unhappy, in the absence of a clear reason, for as little as two weeks.
在沒有明確原因的情況下，人們會在短短兩周內保持沮喪或不快樂。
Major depressive disorder may also result in a loss of appetite, fatigue, changes in sleep patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities and feelings of worthlessness.
重度抑鬱症還可能導致食欲不振、疲勞、睡眠模式改變、對通常令人愉快的活動缺乏興趣和感覺一文不值。
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): People experience depression during certain times of the year, usually winter, when there is less sunlight.
季節性情感障礙 (SAD)：人們在一年中的某些時候會經歷抑鬱症，通常是冬天，那時陽光較少。
Psychoanalysts believe depression is the product of anger directed inward, loss during the early psychosexual stages, or an overly punitive (punishing) superego.
精神分析學家認為，抑鬱症是內向的憤怒、早期性心理階段的喪失或過度懲罰（懲罰）的超我的產物。
Aaron Beck, a cognitive theorist, views depression as the result of unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, the world, and their future.
認知理論家 亞倫貝克 認為，抑鬱症是人們對自己、世界和未來抱有不合理的消極想法的結果。
認知三合會(Cognitive Triad):
A person's attributional style, also known as their explanatory style, describes how they tend to, often unconsciously, explain various life events to themselves.
一個人的歸因風格，也稱為他們的解釋風格，描述了他們如何傾向於，通常是無意識的，向自己解釋各種生活事件。
When someone forms an explanation, it involves three factors.
當有人形成解釋時，它涉及三個因素。
Whether they see the cause of the event as internal or external
他們是否將事件的原因視為內部或外部
For example, if someone does well at a new video game some internal explanations may be, "I'm good at games" or, "I'm quick to learn how to play games from this genre."
例如，如果某人在新的視頻遊戲中表現出色，一些內部解釋可能是「我擅長遊戲」或「我很快就學會了如何玩這種類型的遊戲」。
An external explanation may be, "This game is easy" or, "The person I'm playing against is making a bunch of mistakes."
外部解釋可能是，「這個遊戲很簡單」或「我的對手犯了一堆錯誤」。
Whether they see the situation as stable or unstable
他們認為情況是穩定還是不穩定
For example, if someone gets stuck in traffic on their way to work a more stable explanation might be, "The traffic in this city has gotten steadily worse. It's going to be like this from now on."
例如，如果有人在上班途中遇到堵車，一個更穩定的解釋可能是「這個城市的交通狀況越來越差。從現在開始就是這樣。」
A more unstable explanation is, "The traffic is bad today, but it could be fine tomorrow. It varies."
一個更不穩定的解釋是，「今天的交通很糟糕，但明天可能會好。它會有所不同。」
Whether they see the event as having a more global effect on their lives or if it's specific
他們是否認為該事件對他們的生活具有更全球性的影響，或者它是否具體
For example, if a person makes a new type of error at work, a global explanation would be, "I'm probably going to start making more mistakes on the job in general."
例如，如果一個人在工作中犯了一種新的錯誤，一個全局的解釋是，「我可能會開始在工作中犯更多的錯誤。」
A specific explanation is, "I have a hard time with this new database software, but that doesn't mean the rest of my work will suffer."
一個具體的解釋是，「我很難使用這個新的資料庫軟體，但這並不意味著我的其餘工作會受到影響。」
People who tend to make internal, global, and stable attributions for bad events are more likely to be depressed.
傾向於對不良事件進行內部、全局和穩定歸因的人更容易抑鬱。
The same people tend to make external, specific, and unstable attributions when good things happen to them.
當好事發生在他們身上時，同樣的人往往會做出外部的、具體的和不穩定的歸因。
Martin Seligman：習得性無助(Learned Helplessness)
Biological explanations for depression: Low levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, has been linked with major depressive disorder.
抑鬱症的生物學解釋：低水平的血清素（一種神經遞質）與重度抑鬱症有關。
Depression is also more likely to occur in families, that is, it has a genetic component.
抑鬱症也更有可能發生在家庭中，也就是說，它具有遺傳成分。
Bipolar disorder formerly known as manic depression, involves both depressed and manic states.
雙相情感障礙以前稱為躁狂抑鬱症，涉及抑鬱和躁狂狀態。
A manic state is a feelings of lots of energy, confidence, power, and in some cases, anxiousness and irritable.
躁狂狀態是一種充滿活力、自信、力量的感覺，在某些情況下，還有焦慮和易怒的感覺。
Mania is then followed by depression. Depression is the opposite of mania.
躁狂症之後是抑鬱症。抑鬱症與躁狂症相反。
People have reported working and feeling energetic for days, before falling into a depressed state.
人們報告說工作了好幾天，感覺精力充沛，然後才陷入抑鬱狀態。
People in the manic state often engage in risky and poorly thought out behavior: gambling, criminal behavior, irresponsible sexual behavior.
處於躁狂狀態的人經常從事冒險和考慮不周的行為：賭博、犯罪行為、不負責任的性行為。
此圖片被鑑定為涉
Schizophrenia is distorted thinking, delusions, hallucinations, disorganized language, and unusual motor behavior (movement).
精神分裂症是思維扭曲、妄想、幻覺、語言混亂和不尋常的運動行為（運動）。
Symptoms of Schizophrenia, delusions, are beliefs that have no basis in reality.
精神分裂症的症狀，妄想，是在現實中沒有根據的信念。
Common types of delusions, delusions of persecution, are the belief that people are out to get you.
常見類型的妄想，迫害妄想，是相信人們是來抓你的。
Delusions of grandeur are the belief that you enjoy greater power and influence than you actually do.
偉大的妄想是相信你享有比實際更大的權力和影響力。
Hallucinations are perceptions in the absence of any sensory stimulation.
幻覺是在沒有任何感官刺激的情況下產生的知覺。
Schizophrenics' language use also differs:
精神分裂症患者的語言使用也不同：
Neologisms: Made up words.
新詞：虛構的詞。
Clang associations: String together nonsense words that rhyme.
Clang 關聯：將押韻的無意義單詞串在一起。
Flat affect: They may also have no emotional response at all.
平淡的情感：他們也可能根本沒有情緒反應。
Catatonia: Remaining motionless in strange positions for hours at a time.
緊張症：一次在奇怪的位置上保持一動不動幾個小時。
Waxy flexibility: Schizophrenics allow their body to be moved into any alternative shape and will then hold that new pose.
蠟狀的靈活性：精神分裂症允許他們的身體移動到任何其他形狀，然後保持新的姿勢。
Symptoms of schizophrenia are divided into two types: Positive and negative.
精神分裂症的症狀分為陽性和陰性兩種。
Positive symptoms refer to excesses in behavior, thought, or mood such as neologisms and hallucinations.
陽性症狀是指行為、思想或情緒過度，例如新詞和幻覺。
Negative symptoms are flat affect (no emotional response) and catatonia.
陰性症狀是平淡的情感（沒有情緒反應）和緊張症。
Dopamine hypothesis: High levels of dopamine seem to be associated with schizophrenia.
多巴胺假說：高水平的多巴胺似乎與精神分裂症有關。
Evidence for the dopamine hypothesis comes from the use of antipsychotic drugs that lower dopamine levels, however, if one is given too much of these, it results in muscles tremors and stiffness called tardive dyskinesia.
多巴胺假說的證據來自使用降低多巴胺水平的抗精神病藥物，但是，如果服用過多，則會導致肌肉震顫和僵硬，稱為遲發性運動障礙。
Schizophrenia patients may exhibit morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles (15% larger).
精神分裂症患者的大腦可能會出現形態學變化，例如充滿液體的腦室擴大（大 15%）。
Schizophrenia and the ventricles of the brain:
精神分裂症和腦室：
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulates around the brain and spinal cord.
腦脊液 (CSF) 在大腦和脊髓周圍循環。
The hollow cavities in the brain filled with CSF are called ventricles.
充滿腦脊液的大腦中空腔稱為腦室。
The four ventricles in the human brain are depicted here.
此處描繪了人腦中的四個腦室。
Recent studies with CT scans and MRI scans suggest that an association exists between enlarged ventricles in the brain and the occurrence of schizophrenic disturbance.
最近對 CT 掃描和 MRI 掃描的研究表明，大腦中擴大的腦室與精神分裂症的發生之間存在關聯。
Some research has suggested that negative symptoms are linked to genetic factors, whereas positive symptoms tend to be related to abnormalities in dopamine levels.
一些研究表明，陰性症狀與遺傳因素有關，而陽性症狀往往與多巴胺水平異常有關。
Double Binds (not related to double blind design in research methods)
雙束縛(研究方法與雙盲設計無關，英文諧音)
Certain environments may cause or increase the likelihood of developing schizophrenia.
某些環境可能導致或增加患精神分裂症的可能性。
A double bind is when a person is given contradictory messages.
當一個人收到相互矛盾的信息時，就會陷入雙重困境。
For example, when growing up, Sally is cautioned by parents against acting promiscuously, but her parents give her provocative outfits as gifts.
例如，Sally在成長過程中被父母告誡不要亂交，但她的父母卻給她挑逗性的服裝作為禮物。
Environmental Stressors & Schizophrenia:
環境壓力源與精神分裂症:
This model states that environmental stressors can provide the circumstances under which a biological predisposition for illness, like schizophrenia, can express itself.
這個模型表明，環境壓力源可以提供一種環境，在這種環境下，一種生物易感性疾病，比如精神分裂症，可以自我表達。
Diathesis-stress model: Identical twins do not always both suffer from schizophrenia, because schizophrenia may result from an environmental factor that is not in the other's environment.
素質-壓力模型:同卵雙胞胎並不總是同時患有精神分裂症，因為精神分裂症可能是由不屬於對方環境的環境因素引起的。
Personality disorders are well-established, maladaptive ways of behaving that negatively affect one's ability to function.
人格障礙是一種根深蒂固的、不適應的行為方式，它會對一個人的功能產生負面影響。
Antisocial personality disorder: People with this disorder have little or no regard for others' feelings.
反社會人格障礙:患有這種障礙的人很少或根本不考慮他人的感受。
They view the world as a hostile place where people need to look out for themselves; criminals have a high incidence of antisocial personality disorder.
他們認為這個世界充滿敵意，人們需要照顧自己;罪犯有很高的反社會人格障礙發生率。
Dependent personality disorder: People who rely too much on others.
依賴型人格障礙:過分依賴他人的人。
Paranoid personality disorder: Constantly feel persecuted.
偏執型人格障礙:經常感到受迫害。
Narcissistic personality disorder: Involves seeing oneself as the center of the universe.
自戀型人格障礙:認為自己是宇宙的中心。
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: Persistent unwanted thoughts (obsessions) (e.g., germs) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in an action (e.g., washing hands).
強迫性人格障礙:持續的不想要的想法(強迫)(例如，細菌)導致某人感到需要(強迫)進行某種行動(例如，洗手)。
Post-traumatic stress disorder involves flashbacks or nightmares following a person's involvement in or observation of an extremely troubling event such as war, natural disaster, or traumatic personal event.
創傷後應激障礙是指一個人在經歷或觀察到諸如戰爭、自然災害或個人創傷事件等令人不安的事件後，會出現閃回或做噩夢。
Psychosexual disorders are marked by the sexual attraction to an object, person, or activity not usually seen as sexual.
性心理障礙的特徵是對通常不被視為性的物體、人或活動產生性吸引力。
Pedophilia: Attraction to children.
戀童癖:被孩子吸引。
Zoophilia: Attraction to an animal other than a human.
戀獸癖:被動物而不是人所吸引。
Fetishism: Attraction to objects (like shoes).
戀物癖:對物體(如鞋子)的吸引力。
Anorexia is being a significantly lower weight for one's age and size, and an intense fear of food and fat.
厭食症是指一個人的體重與年齡和體型相比明顯偏低，對食物和脂肪有強烈的恐懼。
Anorexic's also have a distorted body image.
厭食症患者也有一個扭曲的身體形象。
Bulimia commonly involves binge-purge cycles in which a person eats large amounts of food and then vomits or takes laxatives to rid the food.
暴食症通常包括暴食-排泄循環，即一個人吃了大量食物，然後嘔吐或服用瀉藥來清除食物。
Substance related and addictive disorders is a diagnosis made when the use of such substances or behaviors like gambling or drugs negatively affect one's life.
物質相關和成癮障礙是指當使用這些物質或賭博或毒品等行為對一個人的生活產生負面影響時做出的診斷。
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) involves developmental problems.
注意缺陷多動障礙(ADHD)涉及發育問題。
ADHD is more common in boys.
多動症在男孩中更常見。
Children with ADHD may have difficulty paying attention or sitting still.
患有多動症的兒童可能難以集中注意力或坐著不動。
Critics of ADHD suggest that this type of behavior is typical of young boys and is over diagnosed.
ADHD的批評者認為這種類型的行為在小男孩中很典型，並且被過度診斷了。
Alzheimer's disease is a form of dementia.
阿爾茨海默病是痴呆的一種形式。
It is a deterioration of cognitive abilities, often most dramatically in memory.
它是一種認知能力的退化，通常在記憶方面表現最為顯著。
It is progressive.
老年痴呆會增強。
It is associated with beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
它與BETA-澱粉樣斑塊和神經纖維纏結有關。
The Rosenhan Study, the Influence of a Label, is considered an important and influential criticism of psychiatric diagnosis.
羅森漢研究（標籤的影響）被認為是精神病學診斷的重要和有影響力的批評。
心理学卷·其之拾叁·心疾之療
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Early treatment (10,000 B.C – 3,000 BC) involved Trepanning: cutting holes in the skull to let out harmful spirits.
早期的治療（公元前 10,000 - 公元前 3,000 年）包括鑽孔：在顱骨上開洞以釋放有害的靈魂。（曹操與華佗.txt）
Hippocrates (Greece) and Galen (Rome) suggested that psychological illness resulted from biological factors.
希波克拉底（希臘）和克勞迪亞斯·蓋倫（羅馬）提出心理疾病是由生物因素引起的。
During Dark Ages, long after these men, Europeans thought evil spirits were the cause of psychological illness.
在黑暗時代，在這些人之後很久，歐洲人認為邪靈是導致心理疾病的原因。
During the 1950s, research and development into antipsychotic drugs led the U.S. to get rid of large mental institutions which housed lots of mentally ill patients.
在 1950 年代，抗精神病藥物的研究和開發使美國擺脫了收容大量精神病患者的大型精神病院。
The thinking was that the drugs would help people recover, but most mentally ill patients did not recover and became homeless, delusional, and unable to take care of themselves.
當時的想法是，這些藥物可以幫助人們康復，但大多數精神病患者並沒有康復，變得無家可歸、妄想，無法自理。
Preventative efforts are methods used to prevent or diminish the onset of psychological illness.
預防措施是用於預防或減少心理疾病發作的方法。
Primary prevention efforts attempt to reduce the incidences of problems that can later lead to psychological problems (joblessness, homelessness, etc.).
初級預防工作試圖減少後來可能導致心理問題（失業、無家可歸等）的問題的發生率。
Secondary preventioninvolves working with people who are at risk for developing psychological problems (identify people who've experienced trauma or exhibit early symptoms).
二級預防涉及與有心理問題風險的人合作（識別經歷過創傷或表現出早期症狀的人）。
Tertiary prevention efforts aim to keep people's mental health issues from becoming more severe through whatever methods are available (drugs, behavioral therapy, etc.).
三級預防工作旨在通過任何可用的方法（藥物、行為療法等）防止人們的心理健康問題變得更加嚴重。
Treatment styles discussed: Psychoanalytic, Humanistic, Behavioral, Biomedical, Cognitive.
討論的治療方式：精神分析的、人文的、行為的、生物醫學的、認知的。
Two broad types of therapy:
兩大類療法：
Psychotherapy, involves talking extensively to a psychologist; all of the above use this except behavioral and biomedical.
心理治療，包括與心理學家廣泛交談；除行為和生物醫學外，以上所有內容都使用此功能。
Somatic treatments, relating to the body, involve treatment with drugs.
軀體治療，與身體有關的，包括藥物治療。
Psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts refer to people who come for help as patients.
具有生物醫學方向的心理學家和精神分析師將尋求幫助的人稱為患者。
Humanistic therapies prefer the term clients, believing that this is a more positive term.
人文療法更喜歡客戶一詞，認為這是一個更積極的詞。
sychoanalytic theorists view the cause of psychological disorders as unconscious conflicts.
精神分析理論家將心理障礙的原因視為無意識的衝突。
Psychoanalysts focus on identifying the underlying cause of the problem.
精神分析師專注於確定問題的根本原因。
Psychoanalysis and humanistic therapy are referred to as insight therapies because they help patients/clients gain an understanding of their problems.
精神分析和人文療法被稱為洞察療法，因為它們幫助患者/客戶了解他們的問題。
Psychoanalytic therapists believe that a person's symptoms are the outward manifestation of deeper problems that can be cured only through analysis.
精神分析治療師認為，一個人的症狀是更深層次問題的外在表現，只有通過分析才能治癒。
涉及的治療技術Techniques involved
Hypnosis: After being hypnotized by a therapist, patients are less likely to repress thoughts.
催眠：被治療師催眠後，患者不太可能壓抑思想。（正確的直接的中肯的）
Free association: A psychoanalyst asks the patient to speak about whatever comes to mind without censorship, hoping the problem surfaces naturally.
自由聯想：精神分析師要求患者在沒有審查的情況下談論任何想到的事情，希望問題自然地浮出水面。
Dream analysis: Asking a patient about their dreams and interpreting them.
夢境分析：向患者詢問他們的夢境並對其進行解釋。
Psychoanalysts believe that, because the ego’s defenses are relaxed during sleep, unconscious conflicts will more easily reveal themselves during dreams.
精神分析學家認為，由於自我的防禦在睡眠中放鬆，無意識的衝突更容易在夢中顯露出來。
Dreams: Manifest content & Latent content
夢想：清單內容和潛在內容
All of the techniques above rely on interpretations of the therapist.
上述所有技術都依賴於治療師的解釋。
The therapist's interpretations can be criticized for being subjective.
治療師的解釋可以被評為「主觀」的。
When a patient disagrees with their therapist's interpretations, a psychoanalyst views these objections as resistance.
當患者不同意他們的治療師的解釋時，精神分析師會將這些反對意見視為抵抗。
Since the interpretations can be painful, patients are thought to try to protect themselves by "resisting the interpretation."
由於解釋可能很痛苦，患者被認為試圖通過「抵制解釋」來保護自己。
Transference is when patients begin to have strong feelings toward their therapist.
移情是指患者開始對他們的治療師產生強烈的感情。（本子劇情かな？）
Patients may think they love their therapist, may view their therapist as a parental figure, or may hate them.
患者可能認為他們愛他們的治療師，可能將他們的治療師視為父母形象，或者可能討厭他們。
Humanistic therapies focus on helping people understand and accept themselves.
人文療法專注於幫助人們理解和接受自己。
Humanistic therapies strive to help people self-actualize.
人文療法致力於幫助人們實現自我。
Humanistic therapies come out of Abraham Maslow’s work.
人文療法來自亞伯拉罕馬斯洛的工作。（我超，需求層次理論金字塔！）
Self-actualization means to reach one's highest potential.
自我實現意味著發揮自己的最高潛力。
Carl Rogers created client-centered therapy which provides the client with unintentional positive regard.
卡爾·羅傑斯（Carl Rogers）創造了以客戶為中心的療法，為客戶提供了無意的積極關注。
Unconditional Positive Regard is when the therapist accepts and supports a person regardless of what they say.
羅傑認為，這對健康發展至關重要。
Roger believes that this is essential to healthy development.
無條件的積極關注是治療師接受並支持一個人，不管他們說什麼。
Humanistic Therapists claim that people are innately good and have free will (ability to control their own destiny).
人文治療師聲稱，人天生善良，有自由意志（控制自己命運的能力）。
Other therapists, such as biomedical, behavioral, and psychoanalysts argue that behavior is determined, and not free.
其他治療師，如生物醫學、行為和精神分析學家認為，行為是決定性的，而不是自由的。
Humanistic approaches and client-centered therapy are non-directive.
人文主義方法和以客戶為中心的治療是非指導性的。
Rogers and others do not tell their clients what to do; they seek to help clients choose a course of action for themselves.
羅傑斯和其他人沒有告訴他們的客戶該做什麼；他們尋求幫助客戶為自己選擇行動方案。
Therapists encourage the clients to talk a lot about how they feel and the therapist sometimes mirror back those feelings; this is called active listening.
治療師鼓勵來訪者談論他們的感受，治療師有時會反映這些感受；這稱為主動聆聽。
Another type of humanistic therapy is Gestalt therapy developed by Fritz Perls.
另一種人文療法是弗雷德里克·皮爾斯開發的格式塔（完型）療法。
Gestalt therapists emphasize the importance of the whole rather than just the parts.
格式塔治療師強調整體而非部分的重要性。
Gestalt therapists encourage their clients to explore feelings of which they may not be aware and emphasize the importance of body position and minute actions.
完型治療師鼓勵他們的客戶探索他們可能沒有意識到的感受，並強調身體姿勢和微小動作的重要性。
Gestalt therapists want their clients to integrate all of their actions, feelings, and thoughts into a harmonious whole.
格式塔治療師希望他們的客戶將他們所有的行為、感受和思想整合成一個和諧的整體。
Gestalt psychologists also emphasize the present.
格式塔心理學家也強調現在。
Existential therapies have a humanistic focus on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of their lives.
存在主義療法的人文主義重點是幫助客戶實現對他們生活的主觀有意義的感知。
Therapists view their clients' problems as caused by not having a sense of purpose.
治療師認為他們的客戶的問題是由於沒有目標感造成的。
Therapists seek to help a client develop their sense of purpose.
治療師尋求幫助客戶發展他們的目標感。
Behavioral therapies are based around using classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling.
行為療法基於使用經典條件反射、操作條件反射和建模。
Counterconditioning: developed by Mary Cover Jones, is when you repair two stimuli.
對抗條件反射作用：由 Mary Cover Jones 開發，用於修復雙刺激。
For example, present candy at the doctor's office, if the child usually cries at the doctors.
例如，如果孩子經常衝著醫生哭，就在醫生辦公室送糖果。
Systematic desensitization, developed by Joseph Wolpe, involves teaching the patient to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation to reduce phobias.
Joseph Wolpe 開發的系統性脫敏法包括教患者用放鬆來代替焦慮感，以減少恐懼症。
想著一隻蜘蛛。（恐懼程度=1）
看著蜘蛛的照片。（恐懼程度=13）
看著盒子裡的蜘蛛。（恐懼程度=135）
拿著盒子（恐懼程度=1356）
讓蜘蛛在桌子上爬。（恐懼程度=13567）
讓蜘蛛在褲子上爬。（恐懼程度=135678）
讓蜘蛛在袖子上爬行。（恐懼程度=1356789）
讓蜘蛛在胳膊上爬行。（恐懼程度=9876531）
In vivo desensitization: The patient confronts the actual feared objects or situation.
體內脫敏：患者面對實際恐懼的物體或情況。
Covert desensitization: The patient imagines the feared objects or situation.
隱蔽脫敏：患者「想像」恐懼的物體或情況。
Flooding can be in vivo (actual) or covert (imagined).
滿灌療法（直球進入最恐怖、焦慮的情境中）可以在體內（實際）或隱蔽（想像）。
During flooding, the patient faces the most frightening situation first; and if the patient does not back down, they begin to realize their fears are often irrational.
淹水時，病人最先面臨最可怕的情況；如果病人不退縮，他們就會開始意識到他們的恐懼往往是不合理的。
Aversive conditioning: Pairing a habit someone wishes to remove, such as nail biting , with an electric shock or with a substance that induces nausea.
厭惡性調節：將某人希望消除的習慣（例如咬指甲）與電擊或引起噁心的物質配對。
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) focuses on both how clients think and how they behave.
理性情緒行為療法 (REBT) 關注來訪者的思考方式和行為方式。
One may be embarrassed of public speaking, and the therapist would identify the irrationality of the thoughts of the patient, as well as get the patient to engage in public speaking to demonstrate the irrationality of the thoughts.
一個人可能對公開演講感到尷尬，治療師會識別患者思想的不合理性，並讓患者參與公開演講以證明思想的不合理性。
Cognitive Therapies: The therapist challenges the irrational thinking patterns of their clients.
認知療法：治療師挑戰客戶的非理性思維模式。
Aaron Beck, a cognitive theorist, views depression as the result of unreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, the world, and their future.
亞倫貝克，一名認知理論家，認為抑鬱症是人們對自己、世界和未來抱有不合理的消極想法的結果。
This is called the Cognitive Triad.
這被稱為認知三元組。
Albert Ellis and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Albert Ellis 和認知行為療法
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is an action-oriented form of psychotherapy that assumes that maladaptive thinking patterns cause maladaptive behavior and emotions.
認知行為療法 (CBT) 是一種以行動為導向的心理治療形式，它假設不適應的思維模式會導致不適應的行為和情緒。
Modifying dysfunctional thinking and behavior leads to improved symptoms.
改變功能失調的思維和行為可以改善症狀。
Thought: What we think affects how we act and feel.
思想：我們的想法會影響我們的行為和感受。
Emotion: What we feel affects how we think and do.
情緒：我們的感受會影響我們的想法和行為。
Behavior: What we do affects how we think and feel.
行為：我們所做的事情會影響我們的思考和感受。
團體治療(Group Therapies)
Since a patient's problems do not occur in vacuum devoid of other people, many therapists find meeting with the whole family (family therapy) helpful in revealing patterns of dysfunctional behavior between them.
由於病人的問題會發生在沒有其他人的真空中，許多治療師發現與整個家庭會面(家庭治療)有助於揭示他們之間功能失調的行為模式。
Self-help groups are another form of group therapy: Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Gamblers Anonymous.
自助團體是另一種形式的團體治療:匿名戒酒會，匿名戒毒會，匿名賭博會。
Somatic therapies (relating to the body)
軀體療法（與身體有關）
Psychologists with a biomedical, biological, orientation view the cause of disorders as relating to the body and brain.
具有生物醫學、生物學方向的心理學家將疾病的原因視為與身體和大腦有關。
Psychologists with this approach view disorders arising from imbalances in neurotransmitters, structural abnormalities in the brain, and genetic predispositions.
採用這種方法的心理學家認為，由神經遞質失衡、大腦結構異常和遺傳易感性引起的疾病。
Somatic Therapy: Anxiety Disorders
軀體療法：焦慮症
Drugs: Barbiturates, benzodiazepines.
藥物：巴比妥類藥物、苯二氮卓類藥物。
These drugs are classified as depressants because they depress (slow) the central nervous system down and alleviate anxiety.
這些藥物被歸類為抑制劑，因為它們可以抑制（減慢）中樞神經系統並減輕焦慮。
常用的苯二氮卓類藥物：Ativan、Halcion、Klonopin、Rohypnol、Valium、Xanax。
Somatic Therapy: Schizophrenia
軀體療法：精神分裂症
Drugs used to treat Schizophrenia:
用於治療精分的藥物：
Treated with antipsychotic drugs like Thorazine and Haldol.
用抗精神病藥物治療，如 Thorazine 和 Haldol。
These drugs block a receptor for the neurotransmitter dopamine.
這些藥物阻斷神經遞質多巴胺的受體。
Somatic Therapy: Mood Disorders
軀體療法：情緒障礙
Drugs used to treat Mood Disorders: Tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MOIs), and serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor drugs (SSRIs).
用於治療情緒障礙的藥物：三環類抗抑鬱藥、單胺氧化酶抑制劑 (MOI) 和血清素再攝取抑制劑藥物 (SSRI)。
These drugs increase the activity of the serotonin neurotransmitter.
這些藥物增加血清素神經遞質的活性。
Bipolar disorder is treated with Lithium.
雙相情感障礙用鋰治療。
Electroconvulsive Therapy uses electric current, passed through both hemispheres of the brain.
電驚厥療法使用電流，通過大腦的兩個半球。
The electric shock causes patients to experience a brief seizure.
電擊會導致患者短暫癲癇發作。
How ECT works is not certain, shock of electricity probably changes blood flow paths in the brain.
ECT 的工作原理尚不確定，電擊可能會改變大腦中的血流路徑。
It is uncommon, and used mostly in cases of severe depression.
它不常見，主要用於嚴重抑鬱症的情況。
Psychosurgery involves the purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter behavior. This is a last resort!!!
心理外科包括有目的地破壞部分大腦以改變行為。這是最後的手段！！！
Prior to a good understanding, prefrontal lobotomy (removal o the prefrontal lobe) was regularly performed for severe mental illness; it may alleviate some symptoms, but the patient is severely affected in other ways.
在充分了解之前，定期對嚴重的精神疾病進行前額葉切除術（切除前額葉）；它可能會減輕一些症狀，但患者在其他方面受到嚴重影響。
Eclectic means a broad range of sources or approaches.
折衷主義意味著廣泛的來源或方法。
Eclectic therapies take advantage of the different forms of therapies and combine them.
折衷療法利用不同形式的療法並將它們結合起來。
Drugs may be used alongside behavioral therapies, and CBT to treat mood disorders, depression, anxiety, and other mental disorders.
藥物可與行為療法和 CBT 一起用於治療情緒障礙、抑鬱症、焦慮症和其他精神障礙。
治療師的類型(Types of Therapists)
Psychiatrists are medical doctors, and are able to prescribe prescriptions.
精神科醫生是醫生，可以開處方。
Clinical psychologists earn PhDs, and usually deal with people who are experiencing severe mental disorders.
臨床心理學家獲得博士學位，通常與患有嚴重精神障礙的人打交道。
Counseling therapists have either a Masters or PhD and deal with less severe cases of mental disorders – family therapy, school counsellors.
諮詢治療師擁有碩士或博士學位，負責處理不太嚴重的精神障礙病例——家庭治療、學校輔導員。
Psychoanalysts are trained in Freudian methods, and may or may not have medical degrees/Masters/PhDs.
精神分析師接受過弗洛伊德方法的培訓，可能有也可能沒有醫學學位/碩士/博士學位。
心理学卷·其之拾肆·社會之念
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社會心理學側重於態度、歸因、我們如何受到影響、我們如何影響以及我們如何互動的發展和表達。
Social Loafing: The tendency for any individual of a group to put in less effort as a result of being in a large group.
社交遊蕩：群體中的任何個人由於處於一個大群體中而付出較少努力的傾向。
Social cognition discusses attitude formation and attribution theory.
社會認知討論態度形成和歸因理論。
The idea behind social cognition is that people act like scientists; that is, they are constantly gathering data and making predictions about what will happen, and trying to act accordingly.
社會認知背後的理念是人們表現得像科學家。也就是說，他們不斷地收集數據並預測會發生什麼，並試圖採取相應的行動。
Attitude: An attitude is a set of beliefs and feelings.
態度：態度是一組信念和感覺。
Do attitudes always predict behavior?
態度總是能預測行為嗎？
Richard LaPiere travelled around the United States in the 1930s with an Asian couple, and found that the Asian couple was treated poorly due to their race only on occassion.
理察·拉皮爾（Richard LaPiere）在 1930 年代與一對亞洲夫婦週遊美國，發現這對亞洲夫婦僅在偶爾的情況下因種族而受到不良待遇。
Later, he contacted the establishments they visited and asked employees/management whether they would serve Asians; the establishments said they would not serve Asians.
後來，他聯繫了他們參觀的機構，詢問員工/管理層是否會為亞洲人服務；這些機構說他們不會為亞洲人服務。
Stereotypes: Are attitudes about what members of different groups are like.
刻板印象：是對不同群體成員的態度。
Prejudice is an undeserved, negative, attitude toward a group of people.
偏見是對一群人的一種不應有的、消極的態度。
Discrimination is treating categories of people of race, age, sex, gender, or ability differently.
歧視是以不同的方式對待不同種族、年齡、性別、性別或能力的人。
Ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s culture is superior to others.
民族中心主義：認為自己的文化優於其他文化的信念。
If you change someone’s behavior, can you change their attitude?
如果你改變一個人的行為，你能改變他們的態度嗎？
Cognitive Dissonance Theory is based on the idea that people are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors.
認知失調理論的基礎是人們有動力保持一致的態度和行為。
When someone's behavior does not match their beliefs, they experience mental tension or "dissonance".
當某人的行為與他們的信念不符時，他們會感到精神緊張或「失調」。
Someone who wants to live a long healthy life will experience cognitive dissonance if they are a heavy smoker.
想要健康長壽的人如果是重度吸菸者，就會出現認知失調。
Leon Festinger & James Carlsmith conducted a famous experiment where participants experienced cognitive dissonance.
Participants completed a boring task (twisting, turning some knobs).
Leon Festinger 和 James Carlsmith 進行了一項著名的實驗，參與者經歷了認知失調。
After finishing, the participants were told that for either $1 or $20, depending on the group they were in, to lie about the boring task being great to the next participant (actually a part of the experiment).
參與者完成了一項無聊的任務（扭轉、轉動一些旋鈕）。完成後，參與者被告知，根據他們所在的小組，以 1 美元或 20 美元的價格謊稱這項無聊的任務對下一位參與者來說很棒（實際上是實驗的一部分）。
After they were paid to tell the next 『participant』 that the task was interesting, their attitudes were record on a brief survey.
在他們付錢告訴下一個「參與者」這項任務很有趣之後，他們的態度被記錄在一個簡短的調查中。
The group paid only $1, having known the task was boring, but having to say it was interesting, experienced dissonance.
該小組只支付了 1 美元，他們知道這項任務很無聊，但不得不說這很有趣，經歷了不和諧。
Those who had been paid $20, a high reward, did not experience dissonance, and reported on the survey that the task was boring.
那些獲得了 20 美元（高額獎勵）的人沒有經歷過不和諧，並且在調查中報告說這項任務很無聊。
Those who had been paid only one dollar, a small reward, changed their belief about the task and said it was somewhat interesting on the later survey.
那些只得到一美元的小獎勵的人改變了他們對這項任務的看法，並表示在後來的調查中這有點有趣。
Attribution Theory tries to explain how people determine the cause of what they observe.
歸因理論試圖解釋人們如何確定他們所觀察到的事物的原因。
Attributions are either dispositional (internal, referring to one's personality or set of skills, talent, innate ability, or IQ) or situational (beyond the person's immediate control).
歸因可以是性格方面的(內在的，指的是一個人的性格或一系列技能、天賦、天賦或智商)，也可以是情境方面的(人無法直接控制的)。
Say someone cuts you off in traffic. Is it because they are a terrible driver (dispositional) or because their driving to the hospital for an emergency (situational)?
比如說有人在路上搶了你的車。是因為他們是一個糟糕的司機(性格)還是因為他們開車去醫院急救(情境)?
Attributions can also be Stable or Unstable
屬性也可以是穩定的或不穩定的
Robert is a math whiz and always does well in math. This is a person-stable attribution.
羅伯特是個數學天才，數學成績總是很好。這是個人穩定歸因。
Robert simply studied very hard for this test. This is a person-unstable attribution.
羅伯特只是為了這次考試努力學習。這是個人不穩定歸因。
Robert’s teacher, Mr. Smith always gives easy math tests. This is a situation-stable attribution.
羅伯特的老師史密斯先生總是給學生簡單的數學測驗。這是一種情境穩定歸因。
Mr. Smith, Robert’s teacher, gave one easy test. This is a situation-unstable attribution.
羅伯特的老師史密斯先生做了一個簡單的測試。這是一種情境不穩定歸因。
Harold Kelly explains that the kind of attributions people make are based on three kinds of information: Consistency, Distinctiveness, and Consensus.
哈羅德·凱利解釋說，人們作出的歸因是基於三種信息:一致性、特殊性、共識。
Consistency refers to how similarly the individual acts over time (does this person always do this?).
一致性指的是個人在一段時間內的行為有多相似(這個人總是這樣做嗎?)
Distinctiveness refers to how similar some situation is to other situations in which you’ve seen somebody act (did they act like this before?).
獨特性指的是某一情境與你所見過某人的其他情境的相似程度(他們之前有過這樣的行為嗎?)
Consensus refers to taking into consideration how others in the same situation would have acted (would someone else have done this?).
共識指的是考慮其他人在相同情況下會怎麼做(其他人會這麼做嗎?)
Fundamental Attribution Error: When looking at the behavior of others, people tend to overestimate the importance of dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate situational factors.
基本歸因錯誤:在看待他人行為時，人們往往高估性格因素的重要性，而低估情境因素。
In addition, people are more likely to view others behavior as dispositional, but in judging their own behavior, they are more likely to say that their behavior depends on the situation.
此外，人們更可能將他人的行為視為性格，但在判斷自己的行為時，他們更可能說自己的行為取決於情境。
Different cultures may commit the fundamental attribution error less often.
不同的文化可能很少犯基本歸因錯誤。
Individualist cultures emphasize the importance and uniqueness of the individual (error occurs in these cultures more often).
個人主義文化強調個人的重要性和獨特性(錯誤在這些文化中發生得更多)。
Collectivist cultures emphasize a person's link to various groups like family or a company (error does not occur as often in these kinds of cultures).
集體主義文化強調一個人與家庭或公司等不同群體的聯繫(錯誤在這些文化中不經常發生)。
Additional terms regarding social cognition and attribution theory.
關於社會認知和歸因理論的附加術語。
False-consensus effect: The tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them.
錯誤共識效應:人們傾向於高估與自己意見一致的人數。
Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute our success to personal/internal factors, but attribute our failures to situational/external factors.
自我服務偏見:傾向於將我們的成功歸因於個人/內部因素，而將我們的失敗歸因於情境/外部因素。
Just-world Bias: The belief that good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people.
公正世界偏見:相信好事發生在好人身上，壞事發生在壞人身上。
How can you make an argument more persuasive?
怎樣才能使論點更有說服力?
When presenting are argument, is it better to present the facts in a straightforward manner or dress up the message with nice sounds and images?
在陳述論點時，是直接陳述事實更好，還是用漂亮的聲音和圖像來修飾信息更好?
Central Route of Persuasion focuses on details, statistics, and facts about the object or service to persuade an audience.
說服的中心路線集中在細節、統計和關於對象或服務的事實，以說服觀眾。
Peripheral Route of Persuasion is using tactics other than the facts or logical arguments to persuade an audience.
外圍說服路線是使用非事實或邏輯論證的策略來說服聽眾。
These could be using an attractive person, flashing lights, pleasant sounds, an authoritative figure, or something else.
這些可以是一個有吸引力的人，閃爍的燈光，悅耳的聲音，權威的人物，或其他東西。
Some research suggests that people who have attained a higher education are less likely to be swayed by the peripheral route.
一些研究表明，接受過高等教育的人不太可能被外圍路線所左右。
Research also suggests that when presenting to a uniform audience, a one-sided message is better.
研究還表明，當面向統一的聽眾時，片面的信息更好。
When presenting to a broader audience, it is better to show both the pros and cons of the object or service.
當向更廣泛的觀眾展示時，最好同時展示對象或服務的優點和缺點。
Another possible way to make a message more persuasive is to repeatedly show it.
另一種使信息更具說服力的方法是反覆展示它。
Mere Exposure Effect: Even if you've only seen something once, you're more likely to have a positive attitude towards it over something that you've never encountered before.
僅僅接觸效應:即使你只見過一次，你也更有可能對它有積極的態度，而不是你以前從未見過的東西。
Is there anyway to increase the likelihood that you'll do what I ask?
有什麼方法能增加你按我說的做的可能性嗎?
合規策略(Compliance Strategies):
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: If you get people to agree to a small request (do you have the time?), they will be more likely to agree to a larger follow-up request (can you spare a dollar?).
腳踏實地的現象:如果你讓人們同意一個小要求(你有時間嗎?)，他們更有可能同意一個更大的後續要求(你能給我一美元嗎?)
Door-in-the-face: If you want something, ask for something really big before asking for what you really want (can I have $5? 「No」 Can I have $1?).
Door-in-the-face:如果你想要某樣東西，在提出你真正想要的東西之前先提出一個非常大的要求
(我能要5美元嗎?「不行」我能要1美元嗎?)
Norms of Reciprocity: The idea that if you do something nice for someone else, they’ll do something nice in return.
互惠原則:如果你對別人做了好事，他們也會對你做了好事作為回報。
Do others' expectations affect our behavior and performance?
別人的期望會影響我們的行為和表現嗎?
In the 1960s, Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson hypothesized that a teacher's expectation could influence a child's performance.
在20世紀60年代，Robert Rosenthal和Lenore Jacobson假設老師的期望會影響孩子的表現。
Study: They randomly assigned five children to the "spurter/bloomer" group, but told teachers these students were selected based on test performance that indicated future success.
研究:他們隨機將5名學生分到「有進取心/有進取心」組，但他們告訴老師，這些學生是根據預示未來成功的測試表現挑選出來的。
Findings: The children who were expected to "spurt" made larger improvements than the others.
發現:那些被預期會「突飛猛進」的孩子比其他孩子取得了更大的進步。
Self-fulfilling Prophecy/Pygmalion effect/Rosenthal effect is the phenomenon whereby others' expectations of a person affect that person's performance.
自我實現預言（皮格馬利翁效應/羅森塔爾效應）是指他人對一個人的期望影響這個人的表現的現象。
Opposite of this effect is called the Golem effect.
與此效應相反的是
Does performing in front of a crowd help or hinder us?
在一群人面前表演對我們有幫助還是有阻礙?
Social Facilitation: If it is an easy task, a person will perform better in front of an audience.
社會促進:如果這是一個簡單的任務，一個人會在觀眾面前表現得更好。
Social Impairment: When the task being observed is a difficult task, being watched by many people, performance decreases.
社交障礙:當被觀察的任務是一項困難的任務，並且有很多人在觀看時，表現就會下降。
Psychology of Aggression & Prosocial Behavior
攻擊心理學與親社會行為
Instrumental aggression is when the aggressive act is intended to secure a particular end.
工具性侵略是指侵略行為旨在達到某一特定目的。
Hostile aggression Has no clear purpose, like some acts of vandalism.
沒有明確的目的，就像一些破壞公物的行為。
Frustration-aggression hypothesis holds that the feeling of frustration makes aggression more likely.
挫折-攻擊假說認為挫敗感使攻擊更有可能發生。
'Is there any way we can make hostile groups get along?
「有什麼辦法能讓敵對團體和睦相處嗎?」
The Robbers Cave study『』『』 focused on intergroup behavior, observing 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys.
「Robbers Cave研究」 主要關注群體間行為，觀察22個11到12歲的男孩。
The children were split into two teams and forced to compete for rewards.
孩子們被分成兩組，並被迫為獎勵而競爭。
Eventually things became so hostile between the two groups that researchers intervened.
最終，兩組人之間的關係變得如此敵對，以至於研究人員進行了干預。
Contact Theory if hostile groups are made to work toward a superordinate goal that benefits all and necessitates participation from all, then animosity will be reduced between the two groups.
接觸理論:如果敵對群體朝著一個更高的目標努力，使所有人都受益，並要求所有人都必須參與，那麼兩個群體之間的敵意就會減少。
Prosocial behavior: Acts which help other people.
親社會行為:幫助他人的行為。
Bystander effect: The larger the number of people who witness an emergency situation, the less likely any one is to intervene.
旁觀者效應:目睹緊急情況的人越多，干預的可能性就越小。
One explanation for the bystander effect is the diffusion of responsibility.
旁觀者效應的一種解釋是責任擴散。
Diffusion of Responsibility: The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels that they are for helping.
責任分散:看到問題的人越多，任何一個人就越覺得自己不應該提供幫助。
Pluralistic ignorance: People tend to assume that someone else will take action so they need not do it themselves.
多元無知:人們傾向於認為別人會採取行動，所以他們不必自己去做。
What makes us like or dislike other people?
是什麼讓我們喜歡或不喜歡別人?
Research indicates that we like people who are similar to us, with whom we come in frequent contact, and who return our positive feelings.
研究表明，我們喜歡與自己相似的人，與我們經常接觸的人，以及能回應我們積極感受的人。
Factors that influence liking are similarity, proximity, and reciprocal liking.
影響喜好的因素有相似度、接近度和相互喜好。
'心理學的吸引力(Psychology of Attraction')
Research has demonstrated that attractive people are perceived as having all sorts of characteristics and attributes that you could not infer from just looks.
研究表明，有魅力的人被認為擁有所有你不能從外表推斷出來的特徵和屬性。
People may perceive this man as more honest, hard-working, ambitious, etc.
人們可能會認為這個人更誠實、勤奮、有抱負等等。
What makes someone physically attractive?
是什麼讓一個人外表有吸引力?
Research findings show that people who have very symmetrical features are judged as more attractive.
研究結果表明，擁有非常對稱特徵的人被認為更有吸引力。
愛情心理學(Psychology of Love)
Love is hard to define.
愛是很難定義的。
Self-disclosure is when one shares a piece of personal information with another.
自我表露是指一個人與另一個人分享個人信息。
Close relationships with friends and intimate others are often built through a process of self-disclosure.
與朋友和親密的人的親密關係通常是通過自我表露的過程建立起來的。
To what extent do social forces alter people's opinions and actions?
社會力量在多大程度上改變了人們的觀點和行為?
Soloman Asch的從眾心理研究(Conformity studies):
Groups of students participated in a simple "perceptual" task.
一組一組的學生參與了一個簡單的「感知」任務。
All but one of the participants were actors, and the true focus of the study was about how the remaining participant would react to the actors' behavior.
除了一個參與者外，其他參與者都是參與者，而研究的真正重點是，剩下的參與者將如何對參與者的行為作出反應。
Stanley Milgram: Can you make someone more obedient?
Stanley Milgram：你能讓一個人更聽話嗎?
Milgram measured the willingness of participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience.
米爾格拉姆(Milgram)測量了參與者的意願，這些參與者來自不同的職業、不同的教育水平，他們服從權威人士的指示，做出與自己的個人良心相衝突的行為。
65 percent (26 of 40) of experiment participants administered the experiment's final massive 450-volt shock.
65%的實驗參與者(40人中的26人)進行了最後一次450伏的電擊。
Psychology of Groups: How do people act in groups?
群體心理學:人們在群體中如何行動?
Norms are rules about how group members should act.
規範是關於群體成員應該如何行動的規則。
Being a lawyer at an established law firm means going into work well-dressed, prepared, etc.
作為一名在知名律師事務所工作的律師意味著要穿著得體、準備充分等等。
Roles are the actions we carry out in a group.
角色是我們在群體中執行的行動。
The corporate lawyer takes on legal cases dealing with business arrangements/disagreements.
公司律師處理處理商業安排/分歧的法律案件。
In-group: Who you perceive as within your own circle. People view the members of their own group as more diverse than people of the out-group. There is also a preference for member’s of your in-group. This is called in-group bias.
內群體:你認為在你自己的圈子裡的人。人們認為自己群體的成員比外群體的成員更多樣化。你也會偏愛你的內部團體成員。這被稱為群體內偏見。
Out-group: Everyone outside your group.
群體外的人:群體外的人。（還真是）
Out-group Homogeneity: Viewing the out-group as all the same.
外群體同質性:認為外群體都是一樣的。
Group Polarization is the tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions that individual group members would not make on their own.
群體極化指的是一個群體傾向於做出更極端的決定，而這些決定是個體成員自己不會做出的。
Explanations for group polarization include that in a group, individuals may be exposed to new arguments they had no previous exposure to and that the responsibility of the success or failure of some plan is diffused among the group – deindividuation.
對於群體極化的解釋包括:在一個群體中，個體可能會接觸到他們以前沒有接觸過的新論點，以及某些計畫的成功或失敗的責任在群體中擴散——去個性化。
Groupthink, describes the tendency for some groups to make bad decisions, occurs when group members suppress their reservations about the ideas supported by the group, and, as a result, a false sense of unanimity is encouraged.
群體思維(Groupthink)描述了一些群體做出錯誤決策的傾向，當群體成員壓制自己對群體支持的觀點的保留意見時，就會出現這種傾向，結果就是鼓勵了一種一致的錯誤感覺。
Deindividuation: People may get swept up by a group and do things they would never have done if on their own such as rioting or looting.
去個性化(Deindividuation):人們可能會被一群人包圍，做一些如果自己一個人不會做的事情，比如暴動或搶劫。
Philp Zimbardo & The Stanford Prison "Experiment"
菲利普·津巴多和斯坦福監獄的「實驗」
The Stanford Prison Experiment was a social psychology experiment that attempted to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers.
斯坦福監獄實驗是一個社會心理學實驗，試圖調查感知權力的心理影響，重點關注囚犯和獄警之間的鬥爭。
Is the person inherently bad or does the situation/role/institution make him bad?
這個人是天生壞，還是環境/角色/制度讓他壞?